The Bible as we know it today is composed of 66 books – 39 books in the Old Testament and 27 books in the New Testament. However, the development of the biblical canon was a long and complex process that took place over many centuries. Here is an overview of how and when the canon of the Bible was put together:
The Old Testament Canon
The Old Testament canon refers to the 39 books that are considered authoritative and divinely inspired Scripture by Judaism and Christianity. These books were written over a span of roughly 1,000 years, from around 1400 BC to 400 BC.
During this time, the Jewish people began recognizing certain books and prophets as inspired by God. However, there was no definitive list or “canon” of accepted books until later. Here is a brief timeline:
- c. 400 BC – The Torah (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy) is established as canonical by this time.
- 200 BC – The Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, includes the 39 books of the Old Testament canon.
- c. 90 AD – The Council of Jamnia, a gathering of Jewish rabbis and scholars, reportedly discusses the canon and officially closes the Old Testament canon.
- 397 AD – The Council of Carthage ratifies the existing Old Testament canon which is the same as defined by Jamnia.
So by the late 4th century AD, the 39 books of the Hebrew Bible were well established as the Old Testament canon for both Judaism and early Christianity. Some key points about the development of the Old Testament canon:
- The Torah (Law of Moses) was likely established first and considered authoritative early on.
- The Prophets and Writings were accepted as Scripture over time, with some books being disputed before finally gaining full acceptance (e.g. Ecclesiastes).
- The Council of Jamnia represented the culmination of a long process of canonization.
- The Septuagint and Councils of Carthage/Hippo affirmed the 39-book OT canon for Christian churches.
The New Testament Canon
The New Testament canon refers to the 27 books that are considered divinely inspired and authoritative for Christians. These books were written between approximately 45-125 AD.
Unlike the Old Testament, there was no single council that officially closed the canon. The development of the New Testament canon was more organic, emerging through widespread usage and consensus over the first few centuries of the church. Here is a general timeline:
- 45-95 AD – Books are written and circulated amongst churches.
- 90-150 AD – Letters and gospels widely used, initial core canon takes shape.
- 367 AD – Athanasius’ Festal Letter lists complete 27-book NT canon for first time.
- 397 AD – Council of Carthage reaffirms same 27 NT books as authoritative.
- 400s AD – Jerome translates the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate); NT canon established for Western church.
Some additional notes about the development of the New Testament canon:
- The four gospels were accepted early on, as well as most of Paul’s letters.
- Books like James, Hebrews, 2 Peter were disputed before finally gaining full acceptance.
- Criteria for inclusion included apostolic origin, orthodoxy, antiquity, and widespread use.
- The canon was not officially “closed” but emerged through consensus over time.
- The councils of Carthage and Hippo ratified the recognition of the 27 NT books.
So while the Old Testament canon was largely settled by the 5th century BC, the New Testament canon remained fluid for the first few hundred years of the church. By the 5th century AD, there was clear agreement on the 27 authoritative books among major church leaders and councils. This established the canon of the whole Bible – 66 books – that is used today.
Principles for Canonization
Several key principles emerged to help determine which books were considered canonical or authoritative Scripture:
- Apostolic Origin or Connection – Was the book written by an apostle or someone closely associated with an apostle? This established authority.
- Orthodoxy – Did the book align theologically with those already in the canon? Controversial books were often disputed.
- Antiquity – Was the book written close to the time of Jesus and the apostles? Later works were questioned.
- Widespread Use – Was the book widely accepted and used in churches across the Roman empire? This suggested consensus.
- Inspiration – Did the book bear internal marks of being divinely inspired? This was intangible but important.
These criteria and principles helped early religious leaders determine which books were authoritative for the old and new covenant faiths. They judged both the merits of the works themselves as well as how they were received by the faithful.
Role of Councils and Synods
Ecumenical and regional councils played an important role in evaluating the canon and providing universal decrees. Some key councils include:
- Council of Laodicea (363 AD) – First council to list a definitive canon including all 27 NT books.
- Council of Hippo (393 AD) – Affirmed the 27 NT books and approved the Old Testament canon used by Western churches.
- Council of Carthage (397 AD) – Reaffirmed the same OT and NT canons as Hippo.
- Council of Trent (1546 AD) – Reaffirmed the canon in response to the Protestant Reformation, making it definitive for Roman Catholicism.
While these councils formalized the 66 books, the canon emerged through long-term use and informal consensus. Council proclamations reinforced what had become the general consensus of the broader church.
Role of Early Church Leaders
In addition to councils, early church fathers and theologians weighed in on the extent of the biblical canon and helped shape consensus. Some key figures include:
- Origen (c. 184-253) – Recognized the four gospels and most NT books while acknowledging some disputed books.
- Eusebius (c. 260-340) – Affirmed most of NT canon but categorized books as recognized, disputed, or heretical.
- Athanasius (c. 296-373) – First to list exact 27 book NT canon in his Festal Letter (367 AD).
- Augustine (354-430) – Endorsed the complete OT and NT canons as currently established.
- Jerome (c. 342-420) – Translated the Bible into Latin vulgate which helped establish canon for Western church.
The views of these prominent bishops and theologians reinforced the widespread support that existed for most biblical books while helping resolve disputes over contested books.
Role of Church Usage
In addition to leadership, the actual practices and usage of early churches played a pivotal role in confirming the canon. Some key points about church usage:
- Letters like Philemon and books like 2 Peter were read and used in liturgy alongside other accepted Scriptures.
- Heretical groups produced their own spurious gospels which were easily rejected.
- Teachers and theologians extensively used most NT books in their writings.
- Criteria was based on quality, orthodoxy, and benefits to the churches.
- Consensus on core canon emerged organically before later formalization.
Widespread reading and use of certain books across different churches suggested their authority and canonicity. This guided religious leaders in evaluating the merits of individual books.
Later Canon Re-evaluations
While the contents of the biblical canon were largely established by the 5th century AD, there were some later challenges or proposals for change:
- Reformation (1500s) – Protestants rejected the OT apocrypha accepted by Roman Catholics.
- Puritans (1600s) – Proposed removing books they saw as insufficiently inspired, like Song of Solomon.
- Tractarians (1800s) – Emphasized the Greek church’s longer OT canon including books like 1 Esdras.
- Modern times – Some scholars question inclusion/exclusion of contested books like Esther.
However, overall the canon has seen remarkable consistency since the 4th century. Most major branches of Christianity still recognize the same 66 books, with minor variations in the Old Testament numbering and ordering.
Discovery of Other Ancient Books
Archaeological discoveries have uncovered many other books from the ancient world that provide context on the development of the biblical canon:
- Dead Sea Scrolls – Included portions of every OT book except Esther, dating back to 300 BC.
- Nag Hammadi Library – Collection of 13 ancient Gnostic texts discovered in 1945, including gospels and letters.
- Gospel of Judas – Lost gospel recovered in the 1970s painting Judas in a positive light.
While interesting historically, these discoveries have not led to changes in the accepted biblical canon. The criteria of canonicity established by early religious leaders continues to guide the evaluation of ancient texts.
Conclusions
In summary, the development of the biblical canon was a complex process characterized by the following:
- Emerged through consensus over centuries, solidifying by the 5th century.
- Establishment of authoritative texts like Torah first, then Prophets and Writings.
- Informal usage and circulation of NT writings before official recognition.
- Affirmation from religious councils and leaders reinforced growing consensus.
- Criterion emphasized apostolicity, antiquity, orthodoxy and inspiration.
While not without some dispute, the 66 books we recognize as canonical today are faithful to what early Jewish communities and church fathers accepted as their Scriptural authorities. The biblical canon reflects a remarkable unity among various traditions regarding the inspired books.