Determining when the books of the Bible were written can be a challenging endeavor. Unlike modern books, the books of the Bible do not have publication dates printed inside their covers. However, through careful study and analysis, scholars have been able to estimate approximate time periods when the biblical books were likely written.
There are several factors scholars consider when dating the books of the Bible:
- Internal evidence – Statements within the books themselves that hint at an approximate time period. This includes references to historical figures, events, and places.
- Literary style and language – The style of writing and language used can indicate a probable time period when the book was written. Books written in early forms of Hebrew or Aramaic are usually dated earlier.
- Manuscript evidence – The age of the earliest existing manuscripts and fragments gives clues about when the books were first composed. Older manuscript evidence points to earlier origins.
- Historical references – Corroboration with external historical sources can confirm or rule out certain time periods for composition.
- Development of doctrine – Tracing the evolution of theological concepts can provideterminus post quem and terminus ad quem limits for the date of composition.
- Tradition – Longstanding traditions about authorship and date can provide helpful context, although traditions aren’t infallible.
Using these investigative methods, most biblical scholars have reached general consensus about approximate date ranges for the Old and New Testament books. However, there are still ongoing debates about the dating of some books.
Old Testament Dating
Dating the Old Testament books is particularly challenging because Old Testament books were composed and compiled over many centuries. Scholars generally divide the Old Testament into categories based on approximate date ranges:
- Very early (1200-900 BC) – Job, perhaps segments of Genesis, and Exodus.
- Early (900-700 BC) – Remaining segments of Genesis, the books of Samuel, Judges, Joshua, and Isaiah 1-39.
- Middle (700-400 BC) – Deuteronomy, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah 40-55, Amos, Hosea, Micah, Zephaniah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Obadiah.
- Later (400-200 BC) – Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Isaiah 56-66, Joel, Jonah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.
- Latest (200-100 BC) – Chronicles, likely the final compilation of the Torah.
Some conservative scholars date Old Testament books earlier, while some critical scholars date them later. Nevertheless, these ranges represent broad scholarly consensus.
Key factors that influence Old Testament dating include:
- The time periods described within the books themselves.
- First Temple Hebrew vs. Late Biblical Hebrew language styles.
- References to historical figures and nations.
- Manuscript finds like the Dead Sea Scrolls.
There is more certainty about the dating of later Old Testament books from the exilic and post-exilic periods, which match the historical record. Earlier books have wider ranges of possibility.
New Testament Dating
Determining when the New Testament books were written is aided by the fact that the New Testament timeline covers less than a century. Nevertheless, scholars still debate the composition dates of some books. In general, the books cluster around these commonly accepted ranges:
- Early Epistles (45-60 AD) – Galatians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans
- Synoptic Gospels and Acts (60-85 AD) – Mark, Matthew, Luke, Acts
- Later Epistles (80-100 AD) – Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, Philippians, 1 Timothy, Titus, 1 Peter
- Later Epistles (90-120 AD) – 2 Timothy, 2 Peter, Hebrews, Jude, 1,2,3 John, Revelation
- Gospel of John (90-110 AD) – John
Several markers help place New Testament books within this basic framework:
- The destruction of the Jerusalem temple in 70 AD as a past event (or as a future event still).
- References to early church figures and the growth of church organization and ritual.
- References to heretical movements like Gnosticism arising.
- Language style as Koine Greek developed.
Broad scholarly consensus places the New Testament books within a relatively narrow timeline. Differences of scholarly opinion rarely exceed 10-20 years divergence.
Key Factors for Dating Each Section of the Bible
Old Testament Law and History
The first five books of the Bible are the Pentateuch or Torah, traditionally ascribed to Moses, although some parts were clearly added later. Most scholars date the major content to 1300-1200 BC or later, though some conservatives affirm Mosaic authorship around 1440 BC. Exodus through Deuteronomy have strong Egyptian influences and fit best in the late Bronze Age, not early Bronze Age. The poetic Song of the Sea in Exodus 15 may be one of the oldest sections. Genesis contains some very ancient oral traditions, but reached final form around 400 BC.
Joshua continues immediately after Deuteronomy and was compiled around 550 BC, drawing from older battle accounts. Judges was compiled in a similar timeframe, and Ruth shortly after during the monarchy. 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings record the time of Israel’s kings and prophets. They reached final form by the early 600s BC but drew from older court records and prophetic accounts. 1 and 2 Chronicles retell Israel’s history from a priestly perspective and were compiled after the Babylonian exile around 450-400 BC.
Archaeological evidence, historical references, scribal notations, and textual analysis all confirm the dating ranges for these historical books. They paint a literary picture of Israel’s journey from Egypt to the Promised Land to the ruins of Jerusalem after the Babylonian conquest.
Old Testament Wisdom and Poetic Literature
The poetic books of the Old Testament have a wide range of estimated composition dates, although most cluster between 1000-500 BC. Job is often considered the earliest wisdom book, with main content dating from around 1000-600 BC, though the prose narrative framework may have been added later. Psalms originated orally from poetic pieces composed between 1000-500 BC, before being compiled into five collections. Proverbs contains collections primarily from the 700-500 BC timeframe. Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs have language characteristic of post-exilic Hebrew from around 450-330 BC.
These poetic books feature wise sayings, prayers, and songs that share timeless truths passed down orally before being recorded. Their long evolution makes precise dating difficult. Scholarly opinions vary widely. But the peak period for their original wisdom content seems to be 900-500 BC.
Major and Minor Prophets of the Old Testament
The Major and Minor Prophets were active from 800-400 BC, but their books underwent editing and compilation after their deaths. Isaiah 1-39 probably reached final form around 700 BC, while Isaiah 40-66, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah have hallmarks of exilic and post-exilic editing. Daniel’s apocalyptic visions reflect the Maccabean crisis of 168-164 BC.
The “Minor Prophets” have more variation: Hosea, Amos, and Micah are late 700s BC; Zephaniah, Nahum, and Obadiah are from the 600s BC; Habakkuk and Joel date closer to 500 BC; Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi date from after the exile in the 400s.
In addition to prophecies, these books record the historians that the prophets lived amidst and their message to the people at that time, which was often a call to return to God. This allows scholars to pinpoint likely date ranges.
The Gospels and Acts
The four New Testament gospels and the book of Acts were composed between 60-110 AD. Mark is considered the earliest gospel, written around 60-70 AD, probably drawing from earlier oral traditions. Matthew and Luke were composed independently 80-90 AD, with possible access to Mark and a lost early sayings source called Q. John reflects later theology and was likely finalized 90-110 AD. Acts was also written by Luke, as the continuation of his gospel, between 80-110 AD.
The synoptic gospels share similarities that imply literary interdependence, while John has its own style. Acts ends abruptly in the 60s AD, implying it was written before the events of 70 AD. These books give biographical accounts of Jesus and the early church; the timing matches the growth evident in the later epistles.
New Testament Epistles
Paul’s letters are the earliest New Testament books written, composed in the 50s and 60s AD before his martyrdom circa 67 AD. The pastoral epistles of 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus were likely written shortly after Paul’s death. Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, and Hebrews are typically dated to the 80s AD.
The general epistles and Revelation come from the 90s AD. 1 Peter and James have ties to Jerusalem, while 2 Peter and Jude respond to later heresies. 1-3 John combat Gnostic views of Jesus. Revelation addresses persecution under Roman emperor Domitian.
Historical references, church organization, heresies opposed, and Greek vocabulary all point consistently to these composition timeframes for the epistles and Revelation.
Conclusion
While the precise dating of every biblical book is debated, the approximate time periods of composition are clear. Old Testament books emerged gradually over a millennium up to the Persian period. New Testament books were composed within the lifetimes of eyewitnesses, recording the advent of Jesus and the early church.
Careful evaluation of language, historical references, transmission processes, and archaeological insights allows scholars to locate each book within its probable historical context. Continuing discoveries provide further confirmation and understanding.
Although the Bible emerged over many centuries, each book contributes to the overall divine revelation. Their ancient wisdom still speaks today through the eternal Word of God. Understanding historical context enriches biblical interpretation but does not diminish the timeless truth. As Paul wrote, “All Scripture is breathed out by God” (2 Timothy 3:16).
