Coptic Christianity is a branch of Christianity that originated in Egypt. The Coptic Orthodox Church is one of the oldest Christian churches in the world, founded by Saint Mark the Apostle in the 1st century AD. Coptic Christians have a unique history, theology, traditions, and practices that set them apart from other Christian denominations.
History of Coptic Christianity
According to tradition, the apostle Mark brought Christianity to Egypt during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero in the 1st century AD. Mark is regarded as the first bishop and founder of the Church of Alexandria, which would later become the Coptic Orthodox Church. The early church in Egypt was influenced by Hellenistic culture and Greek philosophy but developed a unique Egyptian Christian identity over the centuries.
The term “Copt” comes from the Greek word “Aigyptos” meaning Egyptian. It refers to the native Egyptian Christians who resisted religious pressures over the centuries to abandon their beliefs. Copts faced persecution at times from Romans, Byzantines, and Muslims, especially after the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the 7th century AD. But the Coptic Church has survived as an enduring Christian witness in the Middle East.
Coptic Christians experienced a golden age from the 4th to 6th centuries when monasticism flourished in the Egyptian desert. The monasteries became centers of learning, theology, and Christian spirituality. Significant early Coptic leaders include Saint Antony the Great, considered the father of Christian monasticism, Pachomius the founder of cenobitic (communal) monasticism, and Shenouda the Archimandrite, who emphasized indigenous expressions of Egyptian monasticism.
The Coptic Church formally broke off communion with the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches after the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD over Christological differences. Copts maintained their own theology and doctrine ever since. The Coptic language, derived from ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, remains in use liturgically along with Arabic.
Coptic Orthodox Church Today
There are about 10-15 million Coptic Orthodox Christians worldwide today, with the vast majority residing in Egypt. The spiritual head of the Coptic Orthodox Church is the Patriarch of Alexandria, currently Pope Tawadros II. He is considered the successor of Saint Mark the Apostle.
Most Copts belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church headed by the Pope. A minority adhere to the Coptic Catholic Church, which is an Eastern Catholic church in full communion with the Catholic Church. There is also a small Protestant minority of Copts.
Persecution of Copts continues today in Egypt from radical Islamist groups who target them for violence. But the community remains resilient as an integral part of Egypt’s cultural and ethnic fabric. Copts worldwide celebrate their unique history and maintain ancient traditions while engaging diverse cultures.
Coptic Orthodox Theology and Beliefs
Coptic Orthodox theology maintains many distinctive doctrines and beliefs that differ from Catholic and Protestant theology in the West.
- Christology – Copts adhere to miaphysite Christology. This means they believe that in the one person of Jesus Christ, his divinity and humanity were united in one “nature” while retaining their distinctions. The Coptic Church rejected the dyophysite Christology affirmed at the Council of Chalcedon of two natures in Christ.
- Soteriology – Coptic theology emphasizes Christ’s victory over Satan, sin, and death through the cross. But salvation is through participation in Christ’s redemptive act, not just a legal transaction.
- Ecclesiology – The church as the body of Christ has an important mediatory role in salvation. But the church is seen more as a sacramental community, not an institutional hierarchy.
- Mariology – The Virgin Mary is highly venerated in Coptic theology. She is considered the Mother of God but did not remain a perpetual virgin in Coptic thought.
- Saints – Coptic Orthodox believers ask for intercessions from saints. Icons are sacred art that points to the divine. The saints are not mediators, but they reflect Christ’s grace.
- Sacraments – The Coptic Church recognizes seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation (Chrismation), Eucharist, Repentance and Confession, Orders, Matrimony, and Anointing of the Sick.
Other key elements of Coptic Orthodox doctrine include:
- Emphasizing Biblical interpretation through the lens of patristic tradition.
- Monasticism is held in high regard.
- Prayer, fasting, almsgiving, and reading scripture are essential spiritual disciplines.
- Celibacy is required for bishops.
- Divorce is discouraged and permitted only under limited circumstances.
- The belief in apostolic succession connecting today’s bishops and priests with the early apostles.
Coptic Orthodox Liturgy and Practices
Coptic Orthodox worship services and liturgical practices reflect the uniqueness of Coptic spirituality:
- The main Coptic liturgy used is called the Liturgy of Saint Basil, which originated in the 5th century in Byzantine Egypt.
- Chanting, cymbals, and incense are used liturgically in a worship service focused on the Eucharist.
- Liturgies are performed in Coptic along with Arabic among native Egyptian communities.
- Fasting periods observed include Lent before Easter, Advent before Christmas, Wednesdays and Fridays weekly, and other special fast days.
- Easter is the most important celebration for Copts, representing the victory of Christ over death and sin. It is calculated differently than Western Easter.
- Unique traditions include wearing a cross tattoo to affirm Christian identity and circling the church during liturgy.
- Monasteries provide pilgrimage sites. Saint Anthony and Saint Paul are the most prominent Coptic monasteries.
- The Coptic calendar stems from ancient Egyptians and has 13 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 epagomenal days.
Overall, Coptic Orthodox worship integrates ancient Egyptian and Byzantine influences shaped by its own theological worldview and expressions.
Persecution and Discrimination Against Copts
While Copts were granted religious freedoms as an officially recognized minority under Egypt’s constitution, discrimination and persecution persist. Examples include:
- Social discrimination prevents Copts from higher positions in government, the military, academia, law enforcement, and the media.
- Limits are imposed on church construction and renovation through strict building codes.
- Copts faced increased marginalization under former Egyptian President Mohamed Morsi aligned with the Muslim Brotherhood.
- Radical groups like ISIS directly target Coptic churches, businesses, and families for violence to intimidate the Coptic community.
- Copts involved in interreligious marriages and conversions sometimes encounter social pressures.
- The Egyptian government rarely prosecutes crimes against Copts, fostering a climate of impunity.
Many Copts have left Egypt due to persecution, relocating to the United States, Canada, Australia and Europe. But resilient Christian witness endures with the help of ministries that serve Egyptian Christians experiencing hardship.
Notable Coptic Figures Through History
Prominent Coptic Christians who helped shape Egyptian culture and the worldwide church include:
- Saint Mark the Apostle (1st Century AD) – Missionary credited with establishing Christianity in Egypt and founding the See of Alexandria.
- Saint Antony the Great (c. 251 – 356 AD) – Early Christian monk who shaped the development of monasticism throughout Christendom.
- Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376 – 444 AD) – Served as Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria between 412 and 444 AD. Defended Christological orthodoxy at the Council of Ephesus.
- Saint Pachomius (c. 292 – 346 AD) – Founder of one of the first cenobitic (communal) Christian monasteries who influenced later Rules of monasticism.
- Shenouda the Archimandrite (348 – 466 AD) – Prominent leader of the monastic movement in Egypt who emphasized indigenous expressions of monastic life.
- Saint Cyril VI (1902 – 1971) – Served as Coptic Pope in 1959 – 1971 during increased pressures against Copts. Many miracles are attributed to him.
- Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1922 – 2016) – Egyptian politician who was the first Coptic Prime Minister of Egypt and later Secretary-General of the United Nations.
- Makram Ebeid (1919 – 2019) – Influential Coptic journalist, publisher and politician known as an advocate for equal rights in Egypt.
- Pope Tawadros II (1952 – present) – Current Pope of Alexandria and head of the Coptic Orthodox Church enthroned in 2012.
From early Desert Fathers to recent human rights activists, these and other Coptic figures have shaped Christian thought and Egyptian culture in lasting ways through history.
Relationship of Coptic Christians with Other Groups
As a religious minority in Egypt, Coptic Orthodox Christians today maintain complex relationships with several groups:
- Muslim Egyptians – Historic tensions exist with discrimination, but also friendships and cooperation on shared interests.
- Catholic Church – Theological differences remain from the Council of Chalcedon but the Coptic Catholic Church retains Coptic heritage within Catholicism.
- Greek and Russian Orthodox – The Eastern Orthodox also rejected Chalcedon but remain ecclesiastically separate from Copts.
- Protestants – Small but growing Protestant churches exist in Egypt that cooperate on Bible translation but differ theologically.
- Egyptian government – The relationship is complex between protection of Copts and restrictions on churches, conversion, and political involvement.
- Diaspora Copts – Many Copts living abroad maintain connection to the homeland church but also integrate into new cultures.
- People worldwide – Copts seek positive relationships as part of worldwide Christian witness while retaining unique identity.
Despite challenges, Coptic Christians continue to pursue better understanding and cooperation with people of all faiths and backgrounds.
Global Outreach and Ecumenical Relations
As Coptic Christians worldwide engage society, they increasingly participate in outreach and dialogue:
- In the 19th century, Coptic leaders played a role in the formation of the modern revival movement of the Egyptian Arabic language.
- The Coptic Orthodox Church founded the Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954 to promote Coptic language, art, history and culture.
- In 1959 Pope Kyrillos VI became the first Coptic Orthodox Pope to visit the Vatican, building bridges between the Coptic and Catholic churches.
- Especially since the 1990s, the Coptic Orthodox Church has expanded churches and ministries among immigrant communities in North America, Europe, and Australia.
- Some ecumenical efforts exist between Copts and Protestants, including unofficial dialogues and cooperation on Bible translation into Arabic.
- In 2013 Pope Tawadros II visited Pope Francis at the Vatican, praying together for Christian unity.
- Ongoing Muslim-Christian dialogues address religious freedom while building relationships and understanding across Egypt.
While maintaining their distinct historical identity, Coptic Orthodox leaders increasingly engage with Christians worldwide and people of all religions in a pluralistic world.
Controversies and Challenges
Some of the controversies and challenges encountered at times by Coptic Orthodox Christians include:
- Quran burning allegations – some anti-Coptic forces falsely accuse Copts of burning the Quran to incite violence against them.
- Church building restrictions – Egyptian building codes are inconsistently enforced in ways that hinder construction of new churches.
- Kidnapping of Coptic women – some Muslim men have kidnapped, forcibly converted and married Coptic Christian women, raising human rights concerns.
- Divisions from individuals breaking away – small splinter groups left the Coptic Church over leadership quarrels or doctrinal disputes.
- Monastic land disputes – the Egyptian government has interfered at times in Coptic monastery finances and land ownership.
- Media bias – pro-Islamist media outlets in Egypt often characterize Copts in negative ways.
- US politics perceptions – some Arab media paint Copts as favorable to Israel and Western foreign policies opposed by many Egyptians.
While handling controversies, Coptic Church leaders emphasize religious freedom for all and reconciliation where possible in Egyptian society.
Significance and Contributions to World Christianity
The global church has gained much from Coptic Christianity over two millennia:
- Monasticism originating in the Egyptian desert later spread worldwide, shaping medieval European Christianity.
- The Coptic language helped preserve many early biblical manuscripts and Christian texts from ancient times.
- Distinctive liturgies and hymns rooted in ancient tradition form part of the diverse Christian worship heritage.
- Icons, religious art, and architecture display a unique Coptic style that influenced Eastern Christianity.
- Coptic theology provided an alternative perspective to the Catholic and Byzantine thought dominating church councils.
- Tenacious faith under hardship serves as an ongoing inspiration for Christians facing persecution worldwide.
- Coptic Christians provide a continuing vital Christian witness in the heart of the Islamic Middle East.
In a 21st century marked by religious conflict, Coptic Orthodoxy stands out as an example of faith resilient through immense pressures over centuries. Copts give hope that historic Christian communities can persist even amid challenges of living as minorities within larger non-Christian cultures worldwide.
