Gnosticism refers to a collection of ancient religious ideas and systems which originated in the first and second century AD among early Christian and Jewish sects. The word “Gnosticism” comes from the Greek word “gnosis” which means “knowledge.” Gnostics emphasized the importance of inner, mystical knowledge and rejected materialism and much of the writings of the Old Testament. Here is a more detailed overview of Gnostic beliefs and history:
Origins of Gnosticism
Most scholars agree that Gnosticism likely arose out of the diverse intellectual and religious milieu of the first and second centuries AD. During this time period, the Mediterranean world was dominated by Greek philosophy, Roman political authority, and new forms of Judaism and Christianity. Gnostic ideas likely emerged as Christians attempted to integrate their beliefs with Greek philosophy and retain Jewish traditions. Some key influences on Gnostic thought include:
– Platonism – Plato’s view of the material world as imperfect and the ideal world as perfect aligned with Gnostic distrust of the material world.
– Dualism – The Platonic concept of spirit vs matter was adapted into Gnostic dualism between the spiritual realm of God and the corrupt physical world.
– Mystery religions – Gnostic initiation rituals and secret knowledge may have been inspired by the popular mystery cults of the time.
– Hermeticism – Hermetic occult practices and beliefs about spiritual regeneration influenced Gnostic ideas.
– Judaism – Gnosticism retained and adapted some Jewish traditions, including mystical numerology related to biblical interpretation.
Some competing theories suggest possible influence from Persian dualistic religions like Zoroastrianism or even Buddhism, but these connections are more tenuous. Most scholars believe Gnosticism emerged within Jewish and Christian circles in the first and second centuries AD.
Core Beliefs of Gnosticism
Since Gnosticism was a collection of often competing belief systems, there was diversity in specific doctrines. However, some unifying themes in Gnostic beliefs include:
– Dualism – The physical world was created by an inferior, evil god (called the demiurge), while the spiritual realm is the product of a different, good supreme being.
– Secret Knowledge – Gnosis, or esoteric mystical knowledge, was valued over faith. Accessing secret knowledge was necessary for salvation.
– Rejection of material world – Most Gnostics viewed the material world as fundamentally evil, limiting, and the product of the demiurge. The goal was to transcend physical existence.
– Reinterpretation of biblical creation – The Gnostic demiurge was associated with the Creator God of the Old Testament. The God of the New Testament represented the supreme spiritual being.
– Non-literal view of Jesus – While Gnostics incorporated Jesus into their belief systems, they rejected the incarnation. Jesus was seen as purely spiritual.
– Asceticism – Since the material world was considered evil, Gnostics tended toward asceticism, strict self-denial, fasting, and celibacy.
– Individualism – Gnosis was an individual process of enlightenment. Gnostic groups resisted hierarchy, though some allowed for charismatic teachers.
Gnostic Sects
While Gnosticism was never unified, some of the major Gnostic sects included:
– Valentinians – Founded by Valentinus in the 2nd century AD, they were one of the most prominent Gnostic groups in the early church, attempting to synthesize Christianity with Platonic philosophy.
– Sethians – Traced their teachings back to Seth, third son of Adam and Eve. Focused on secret knowledge and rituals. Produced texts like The Apocryphon of John.
– Marcionites – Marcion affirmed a strong dualism between the wrathful god of the Old Testament and merciful God of the New Testament. He rejected any Jewish influence on Christianity.
– Manichaeism – Taught by the Persian prophet Mani, it held to a radical dualism between darkness and light, spirit and matter. They followed a vegetarian diet and ascetic practices.
– Mandaeism – Originating in the Jordan Valley in the early centuries AD, Mandaeans followed John the Baptist as God’s greatest prophet. They rejected Jesus and followed Gnostic and baptismal rituals.
There were numerous other Gnostic teachers and sects, though many writings have been lost to history. What we know of many Gnostic groups comes from critiques by early Church Fathers.
Gnostic Writings
Since Gnosticism was based on esoteric knowledge, Gnostic texts were circulated among initiates and students. Many writings were destroyed or lost over the centuries, but some surviving Gnostic texts include:
– Gospel of Thomas – A sayings gospel portraying Jesus as a source of hidden knowledge. Likely composed in the first century AD.
– Gospel of Mary – Partially lost text focusing on Mary Magdalene as a source of secret revelation. Composed in the 2nd century AD.
– Gospel of Judas – Portrays Judas in a positive light as helping to release Jesus’ spiritual self. Likely composed by the Cainite Gnostic sect in the 2nd century AD.
– The Apocryphon of John – Sethian Gnostic text describing the nature of the spiritual world and origin of the material world and humanity. Composed in the 2nd century AD.
– Pistis Sophia – Important early Gnostic work focused on cosmic mysteries and souls’ ascension through heavenly realms. Written around the 3rd century AD.
In 1945, a cache of Gnostic texts was discovered at Nag Hammadi in Egypt. This collection of 13 ancient books contains over 50 texts, including those listed above. They provide important source material on Gnostic beliefs.
Gnosticism and Christianity
As an ascetic, philosophical dualist movement focused on secret spiritual knowledge, Gnosticism was viewed as heretical by most early Christian leaders. Gnostic rejection of the material world was at odds with the doctrine of the incarnation and sacraments. Gnostic individualism also contradicted emerging church hierarchy and authority.
However, Gnosticism and Christianity also shared some traits, including baptism, concern for salvation, focus on Jesus Christ, and use of biblical texts. Some Gnostics considered themselves Christians, but took doctrine in radically different directions. There was not a neat separation between the two in the first centuries after Christ.
Several early Church Fathers, including Irenaeus, Hippolytus, and Tertullian, wrote extensively against Gnostic teachings. Yet some Gnostic influences remain, even in orthodox Christian beliefs. The first known usage of the term Gnosticism comes from Irenaeus around 180 AD.
Decline of Gnosticism
Gnosticism began to decline in the 3rd century AD, as it was actively opposed by Christian leaders and Roman authorities. The rise of orthodoxy and canonization of the New Testament undercut Gnostic teaching. Gnostic texts were banned, though some survived.
However, a few Gnostic sects continued for several centuries. For example, Manichaeism spread far across the ancient world, from Rome to China. Mandaeism survived as a still-active ethno-religious group based in Iraq and Iran. Gnostic ideas have reemerged in new religious movements like Freemasonry or Theosophy.
Modern Understanding of Gnosticism
For centuries, Gnosticism was largely forgotten. In the 19th century, scholars revived interest in ancient Gnostic texts. Publication of the Nag Hammadi library in the 20th century provided new source material.
Today, academic study of Gnosticism seeks to understand it as a fascinating historical phenomenon, providing perspective on early Christianity and alternative religious experiences. However, resurrecting ancient Gnosticism as a modern system of spirituality involves significant theological problems from a traditional Christian perspective.
While Gnostics considered themselves enlightened, early church fathers condemned their occult rituals and concern with secret knowledge. Irenaeus considered Gnostic beliefs not just unorthodox or false doctrine, but “obviously full of blasphemy.” Modern scholars now take a more neutral, research-focused approach to understanding ancient Gnosticism as a rival to early orthodox Christianity.
Summary Theology of Gnosticism
In summary, here are some of the core theological beliefs of ancient Gnosticism:
– Dualism between the transcendent spiritual realm and corrupted physical world
– Demiurge as the inferior, demonic creator of the material universe
– Access to gnosis – esoteric, salvific knowledge – through spiritual enlightenment
– Denial of God taking human form through incarnation of Christ
– Rejection of the material world and physical body as evil
– Focus on transcending material existence through asceticism and mystical practices
– Individualistic access to knowledge, apart from hierarchy and authority
– Discrimination between inferior Old Testament God and God of Jesus Christ
While many details differ between groups, these principles encapsulate the basic theology shared among the wide array of ancient Gnostic sects as they competed for alternative interpretations of Biblical texts and Hellenistic philosophy. Gnosticism serves as an important example of the theological diversity that existed within early Christianity.
