The Egyptian Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text containing spells, hymns, and instructions to guide the deceased through the afterlife. It emerged around 1850 BCE during the beginning of the New Kingdom period and continued to be used until around 50 BCE.
The Egyptian name for the text, “rw nw prt m hrw”, translates literally as “Spells of Going Forth by Day”. This refers to the deceased being able to journey successfully into the afterlife during the daytime. The text was meant to assist the deceased in overcoming obstacles and dangers in the afterlife through the use of magic spells and by giving them knowledge they would need.
The Book of the Dead was not a single unified text but rather a collection of spells. It was written on papyrus scrolls and placed inside the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased. The spells were commissioned by the deceased before their death. Scribes would customize the texts by choosing spells they thought would help the deceased in their afterlife journey. As a result, no two copies of the Book of the Dead are identical.
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of magic spells and formulas. Some of the most well known spells included:
- Spell for Going Forth by Day – This described actions for the soul of the deceased to take in order to journey successfully into the afterlife.
- Weighing of the Heart – This spell was recited during the ritual where the deceased’s heart was weighed against the feather of Maat to assess their moral worth.
- Spells of Transformation – These spells gave the deceased the power to transform into different objects, animals, or gods in order to overcome challenges.
- Spells for passing through the underworld – These spells requesting permission at each of the gates to pass through into the afterlife.
The texts often contained accompanying illustrations. These vivid illustrations depicted the obstacles and entities the deceased would encounter and pass on their journey into the afterlife. Some of the most common illustrations included:
- Deceased entering the Judgment Hall of Osiris
- Weighing of the heart ceremony
- Deceased plowing, sowing, and harvesting in the Field of Reeds
- Deceased spearing fish and fowl in the waters of the afterlife
- Deceased sitting before a table of offerings
The Book of the Dead served an important role in ancient Egyptian religion. First and foremost, it helped Egyptians deal with mortality. The spells provided a way for them to preserve a form of life after death. The book portrayed death as an ultimate goal and a transition to a better existence rather than a final end.
The Book of the Dead also reflects the Egyptian belief that the deceased could still influence the world of the living. Maintaining a link between the living and the dead was incredibly important in Egyptian culture. The book provided a way to ensure this connection persisted after death.
Additionally, the Book of the Dead highlights the Egyptian belief in the power of magic. The numerous transformation spells and secret knowledge contained in the book were thought to wield great influence over supernatural forces. Proper application of these spells was key to navigating the afterlife successfully.
The Book of the Dead evolved over a long period of time. Spells from the Pyramid Texts of the Old Kingdom were carried over and incorporated into the later Coffin Texts and then the Book of the Dead. However, there were some key changes and additions over time:
- In the Middle Kingdom, the spells were adapted from pyramid walls and coffins to be written on papyrus.
- In the New Kingdom, vignettes were introduced to illustrate the texts.
- Democratization – in the Late and Ptolemaic periods, the book was no longer restricted to royalty and available to elite commoners.
- Standardization – in the Saite and Ptolemaic periods, the selection and order of spells became standardized into more uniform sequences.
The Book of the Dead remained popular until the 1st century BCE. It began to fall out of use in the 4th century BCE when written texts painted directly on the walls of the burial chamber became the preferred funerary text. The very last known example of ancient Egyptian funerary literature dates to the 1st century CE.
Several factors contributed to the Book of the Dead’s decline:
- Rising interest in other afterlife mythologies – such as the journey of the sun god through the underworld.
- Increasing influence of Greek and Roman culture after Alexander’s conquest – their philosophies viewed death differently.
- Changes in burial practices – such as the move away from traditional tombs to burial in catacombs.
- Rise of Christianity – which came with its own views on mortality and the afterlife.
The Book of the Dead provides invaluable insight into ancient Egyptian beliefs about the afterlife. However, there has been much debate among Egyptologists about whether the spells actually worked and the precise rituals used. Unfortunately, many specifics remain elusive. Nonetheless, the text gives us a unique glimpse into how Egyptians confronted death and mortality.
In total, around 200 spells are known, and there is a great deal of overlap with the Coffin Texts which mostly date from earlier in the New Kingdom. Some of the spells introduced at this time include spell 17, a light spell to illuminate the darkness, and spell 125, which definitely places the Book of the Dead in the Late Kingdom by virtue of naming Osiris as lord of the underworld.
An analysis conducted in the early 1990s estimated that the text in its most complete form would take up about 15 meters spread over 37 sheets.
Egyptologists divide the Book of the Dead into a number of sections:-
- Chapters 1-16 The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its senses.
- Chapters 17-63 Explain the mythic origin of the underworld and its numerous gods.
- Chapters 64-129 The deceased travels across the sky in the sun-god’s boat with the blessed dead.
- Chapters 130-189 The deceased enters the underworld and joins Osiris, the god of the dead.
- Chapters 189+ Magical formulas and representations of the deceased in the afterlife.
The chapters were not a fixed tradition but changed over time. Sometimes the beginning chapters were left out. It was often adapted to meet the requirements of the deceased. For example, earlier versions may just have one of the introsductory spells for entering the tomb but later examples may have more complex entering phases. Texts also differed in emphasis, some focusing more on life in the hereafter, while others on the planet’s cosmography based on the solar cycle.
The book had cursive hieroglyphs and vignettes that varied in style and detail. Some papyri had very realistic illustrations of birds, animals, and people, even showing children. Others followed rigid representations that did not attempt realistic portrayals.
The most lavish examples could include gold and molded coverings with Egyptian motifs. Other books were very simple without ornamentation and had a basic papyrus roll construction.
The crucial spells had titles like:-
- “Spell for not dying again in the realm of the dead”
- “Spell for not having your magic taken away”
- “Spells for not allowing work to be done against one in the realm of the dead”
The text often color codes certain passages to distinguish between the voices of different gods, priests, the deceased, or narration. Female speech was written in red ink with standard black text reserved for males. The Egyptian word for “red” was the same as that for “evil”. Possibly this custom originated from taboos about writing angry or threatening phrases in red.
The vignettes often showed activities envisaged in the afterlife, including growing food, sailing, and greeted by the goddess of the West when entering the underworld.
The core chapters crafted around 200 BCE, and written on rolls of papyrus, included:-
Spell for passing through the dangerous netherworld.
This asks gatekeepers to allow the deceased to enter and leave:
“Hail so and so! Come in peace Gatekeeper! I am one honored the West like Osiris. Let me enter like Re and leave in peace like Thoth”
Weighing of the heart ritual
The deceased has his or her heart weighed against the feather of truth by Osiris. Heavy hearts were swallowed by a demon. Those absolved continued to reap the heavenly rewards of righteous living. The spell explains the entire judgment process the dead would undergo.
Spells for transforming into spiritual bodies
The deceased could become an akh (effective spirit) to live as an ancestor, or a khu (shining being) to travel the skies. There were spells for changing into birds like a falcon or heron. Others for taking the form of divine entities, the deceased’s shadow or even a flower.
Spells to pass through the afterlife gates
These are lengthy spells for navigating through the guarded gates that lead to Osiris’s divine hall. Each gatekeeper was depicted and had to be praised correctly before the deceased could continue.
Preservation of the corpse
Spells for preserving and animating the physical remains. So the soul and rotting body were intertwined. Parts of the corpse were identified with gods. The backbone with Osiris, jaws with Anubis, etc.
This body preservation reflected the Egyptian belief that eternal life was physical as well as spiritual. Ka priests carefully tended the corpses for this purpose.
The book was divided into chapters/fields:-
Hesiod – Named after the Greek poet. Early version with accent on providing offerings for the ka in the afterlife.
Theban – Medieval texts from Thebes with solar hymns and emphasis on unity of Re and Osiris.
Saite recension -Standardized text in chapters, vignettes and rubrics. Developed 600-300 BCE.
Ptolemaic – Known in Greek as tà mystèria ton Osirin. Compile by temple scribes 250-150 BCE.
The Book of the Dead spells were secret knowledge. Many magical references are concealed in cryptographic text and the information was limited to the priesthood and royal elites.
The text was so potent, it was even believed dangerous snakes would die instantly just from contact with the Book of the Dead.
The earliest sections are known as pyramid texts, exclusively for pharaohs and found engraved in their pyramid tombs. These could only be recited by the living king himself. He would speak the spells and preserve divine powers and sacred cosmic knowledge.
In the First Intermediate Period (2181 to 2055 BCE), however, the centralized state collapsed. Regional governors (nomarchs) began using coffin texts for burials, now available to local elite as well. Scribes took pyramid texts and modified them into the new standardized coffin texts.
Coffin texts could incorporate current affairs and issues. In contrast, pyramid texts were immutable as eternal truth. One text describes chaos under the central government’s breakdown.
Following the Middle Kingdom, the New Kingdom period (around 1550 to 1070 BCE) saw continued democratization when the book was opened to more of the elite. Standards also relaxed so each person could decide their own content.
As a result, scholar Malcolm Mosher states: “the New Kingdom Book of the Dead exhibits a wide variety of text lengths, text groupings, vignette usage and selectivity, text and vignette order, and quantity of rolls used for any one manuscript.”
The earliest known example is the Greenfield Papyrus dated around 950 BCE (pictured). However, fragments have been uncovered even earlier. Other famous papyri are Papyrus Ani or the Theban Recension from around 1250 BCE.
The largest collection is housed at the British Museum in London. In 1821, Italian explorer Giovanni Belzoni acquired 11 papyri near Luxor, marketed to English collector Henry Salt. He got them to London by 1824.
Another milestone was the 1888 publication of the Papyrus of Ani, translated by renowned Egyptologist Sir E. A. Wallis Budge. For the first time, the hieroglyph text and illustrations were reproduced in full book form for modern readers.
The Book of the Dead gives a rare treasure map into how ancient Egyptians saw the afterlife and their place in the universe. As such an iconic cultural artifact, it has inspired everything from movies to music and modern pop culture.
The mystical text remains one of the outstanding artifacts from Egypt’s Old Kingdom and continues to inspire awe at this unique philosophical system created 5000 years ago to cope with death and seek eternity.
