The Bible is a collection of writings from multiple authors over many centuries. Determining exactly who wrote the Bible is a complex task, given its long history and the many hands involved in its production. However, scholars have identified the likely authors and time periods for most of the books included in the Old and New Testaments.
Old Testament Authors
The Old Testament contains 39 books written over a span of roughly 1,000 years, from around 1200 BC to 200 BC. Some key authors of Old Testament books include:
- Moses: According to tradition, Moses wrote the first five books of the Bible – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. These books are collectively known as the Torah or Pentateuch.
- Joshua: The book of Joshua was likely written by Joshua himself, a leader who took over after Moses died.
- Samuel: Samuel was a prophet and judge who may have written parts of the books of Judges, Samuel 1 and 2.
- David: The psalms have traditionally been credited to various authors, including David, the shepherd who became king. David is specifically named as the author of many psalms.
- Solomon: Solomon, David’s son, is identified as the writer of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs.
- Major Prophets: The major prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel are considered the authors of the Old Testament books under their names.
- Minor Prophets: The 12 minor prophets – Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi – were the authors of their own named books.
- Ezra: Ezra, a scribe and priest, most likely penned the book of Ezra.
- Nehemiah: Nehemiah, a cupbearer in the Persian court, probably wrote the book of Nehemiah.
- Chronicler: The books of 1 and 2 Chronicles do not name their author, but he is commonly called the Chronicler.
In many cases, authorship of Old Testament books was assigned long after they were written, so the actual identities of the authors are not always clear. Also, some books like Psalms had multiple authors across different time periods. Nevertheless, these traditional ascriptions give us a general framework for the authorship of the Old Testament.
New Testament Authors
The New Testament contains 27 books written in the first century AD. The main authors include:
- Matthew: The Gospel of Matthew is traditionally ascribed to Matthew, one of Jesus’ twelve disciples.
- Mark: The Gospel of Mark is associated with Mark, another disciple and companion of Peter.
- Luke: The physician Luke wrote the gospel bearing his name.
- John: The fourth gospel is attributed to John, one of Jesus’ inner circle of disciples.
- Paul: Nearly half of the New Testament books are letters written by the apostle Paul to various early churches.
- James: The book of James was likely written by Jesus’ brother James.
- Peter: The apostle Peter is believed to be the author of 1 and 2 Peter.
- Jude: The short book of Jude was written by Jesus’ brother Jude.
- Unknown: The anonymous authors of Hebrews, Acts, and Revelation are uncertain.
Again, biblical scholarship indicates that the traditional authorship of some New Testament books is open to question. Nevertheless, these attributions give us a starting point for understanding who penned this collection of early Christian writings.
Later Contributors
In addition to the original authors, others contributed to the production and preservation of the biblical texts:
- Scribes: Specially trained scribes copied the original writings by hand as the Bible was transmitted over generations.
- Editors: Editors and compilers put the books together in their final form. For example, Moses likely compiled sources into the first five books.
- Translators: As the Bible spread to new regions, translators converted the texts from original languages into local languages.
- Clergy: Religious leaders and scholars through the centuries have studied and verified the texts.
Given the numerous individuals involved in copying, editing, translating and compiling the Bible over many centuries, scholars continue to study and debate the authorship of specific books. But the traditional ascriptions provide a starting point for understanding the key writers who contributed the biblical literature.
Beyond the human authors, believers also consider the Bible inspired by God. However, views differ on how inspiration occurred – whether God literally spoke through the writers or worked through their minds, personalities and life experiences as they wrote. But regardless of the exact means, Christians believe that while humans wrote the words, the Bible’s ultimate divine author is God himself.
The Torah – The Books of Moses
The Torah, also known as the Pentateuch, refers to the first five books of the Bible – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. Jewish and Christian tradition holds that these books were written by Moses under divine inspiration. Moses was the leader God appointed to deliver the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and into the Promised Land.
Here is an overview of the evidence regarding Mosaic authorship of the Torah:
- Self-attribution – Numerous passages refer to Moses recording events and writing down laws (Exodus 17:14, 24:4, 34:27, Numbers 33:1-2, Deuteronomy 31:9). This implies he wrote sections of the Torah.
- Unity – The first five books share language, themes and structure that suggest a common author.
- Ancient tradition – Jewish and early Christian tradition uniformly recognized Moses as the Torah’s author.
- Limitations – However, the books also contain apparent inconsistencies and describe events after Moses’ death, indicating that later editing occurred.
There are good reasons to accept that Moses wrote foundational material in the Torah. But the evidence also suggests a complicated editorial history. The books likely developed out of early oral and written traditions passed down from Moses. Various authors and editors then compiled, updated and expanded this material over centuries to form the Torah’s final structure. So while Moses did not personally sit down and write all five books as they currently exist, he still stands as the essential prophet and lawgiver behind this foundational section of Scripture.
The Historical Books
The historical books detail Israel’s history from their conquest of Canaan through the reign of Israel’s monarchs. This group includes Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings, 1 & 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther.
Here are some key insights on authorship of these books:
- Joshua – Traditionally ascribed to Joshua himself or assistants under his direction.
- Judges – Unknown, likely a prophet living early in Israel’s monarchy.
- Ruth – Unknown, perhaps Samuel or another prophetic author.
- 1 & 2 Samuel – Possibly the prophets Samuel, Nathan and Gad, based on 1 Chronicles 29:29.
- 1 & 2 Kings – Unknown, sometimes attributed to Jeremiah.
- 1 & 2 Chronicles – Ezra has been suggested due to similarities in style, but authorship is uncertain.
- Ezra & Nehemiah – Most likely written by Ezra and Nehemiah respectively.
- Esther – Unknown, proposed authors include Mordecai, Ezra or Nehemiah.
Each of these books takes its name from a key person or event in that period of Israel’s history. Traditional views often attribute authorship to prominent prophets or leaders of the time, but solid evidence is sparse. Like the Torah, these books likely grew out of early oral and written material compiled by unknown scribes and editors. But they still provide a historical narrative tracing God’s activity among his people Israel.
Poetry and Wisdom Books
This collection of books includes Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs. They contain poetic and wisdom literature written mainly during Israel’s monarchy (1000 – 586 BC). Here is what we know about their authors:
- Job – Authorship uncertain, Job or Moses have been suggested.
- Psalms – Many different authors over centuries, including David, Asaph, Solomon, and the sons of Korah.
- Proverbs – Different sections are attributed to Solomon, Agur, and Lemuel.
- Ecclesiastes – Traditional and ancient attribution to Solomon.
- Song of Songs – Solomon identified as author, possibly with help from the Shulammite woman.
These books do not attempt to record history, but instead capture expressions of worship and wisdom through poetry and song. David and Solomon seem clearly identified with Psalms and Song of Songs/Proverbs respectively. But much remains uncertain about the ultimate compilation process behind this collection of poetic literature.
Major Prophets
The “major” prophets refer to five key prophetic books of significant length – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel and Daniel. They are grouped separately from the shorter 12 minor prophets. Here is what we know about their authors:
- Isaiah – The prophet Isaiah son of Amoz has traditionally been viewed as the author of the book bearing his name.
- Jeremiah – The prophet Jeremiah has widely been accepted as the author of this book, as well as the book of Lamentations.
- Ezekiel – The prophet Ezekiel is identified as the author in the text.
- Daniel – Possibly written by Daniel himself, or possibly by another author using his name.
For these four major prophets, traditional views support the books being written by the individuals whose names they bear. However, critical scholars often identify a complex history of authorship and editing for prophetic books. Portions may derive from the prophets themselves while other parts were added by later writers. But overall these books preserve the messages of these four great prophets who called Israel to faithful relationship with God.
The Minor Prophets
The minor prophets refer to the short books of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. Authorship evidence includes:
- The books are traditionally attributed to prophets of the same name.
- The first person language in some books implies autobiographical authorship.
- The contents fit details known about some of the prophets.
- Jewish and Christian tradition largely accepted these ascriptions.
While less is known about the minor prophets individually, as a group they offer important prophetic messages to Judah and Israel in the centuries leading up to exile. The text itself supports the traditional view that each book stems from the prophet after which it is named. But questions remain about the extent of contributions from later editors.
The Gospels
The four New Testament gospels – Matthew, Mark, Luke and John – contain biographical accounts of Jesus’ life and ministry. Here is what we know about their authorship:
- All four books are anonymous and the names were attached later.
- Papias (c.125 AD) attributes Matthew and Mark to apostolic authors, which early tradition followed.
- Internal evidence suggests Matthew and John were eyewitness accounts.
- Luke’s preface indicates it was written by a companion of eyewitnesses.
- Differing perspectives point to four separate authors.
Critical scholars continue to debate whether the traditional gospel ascriptions reflect any genuine knowledge of authorship, or were a later attempt to link these books with apostles. The original authors remain unknown. Nevertheless, the traditional titles reflect how the early church understood and passed on these foundational accounts of Jesus’ life and teachings.
History and Letters
The remainder of the New Testament contains a history book – Acts – and many letters written to individuals and early churches. Authorship is clearer here:
- Acts – Ancient tradition attributes this to Luke, the author of the gospel bearing his name.
- Pauline epistles – Paul is identified as the author in each letter.
- General epistles – James, Peter, John and Jude correspond to Jesus’ brothers and apostles.
- Hebrews – The author is unknown, suggestions include Paul or Barnabas.
- Revelation – The writer calls himself John, traditionally identified as the apostle.
The epistles themselves claim authorship by early apostles, church leaders and their followers. Conservative scholars generally accept these ascriptions as reliable, while critical scholars raise more doubts in some cases. Nevertheless, whether directly from their stated authors or followers writing in their names, these letters proved foundational documents for early church doctrine and practice.
Conclusion
Ultimately the Bible was written by over 40 authors spanning 1500 years. So determining precise authorship for every book represents an immense scholarly challenge filled with questions and debates. Nevertheless, scholars have put together a broad framework for identifying the individuals responsible for penning the biblical literature.
While gaps in our knowledge remain, these traditional ascriptions provide a starting point for understanding the human writers who contributed to Scripture under divine inspiration. The Bible stands not just as a product of divine power but also human insight, authorship and history. And through its pages, we encounter God revealing himself through encounters, conversations, and relationships with the people of earth across the centuries.
