The Bible provides abundant evidence that Moses was a real historical figure who led the Israelites out of Egypt and received the Law from God. While some skeptics have questioned Moses’ existence, the biblical testimony about him is quite substantial. Here is an overview of what the Bible says about Moses and the historical clues supporting his life.
Moses in the Pentateuch
The first five books of the Bible – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy – are known as the Pentateuch or the Torah. These books provide the most direct testimony about Moses, spanning his birth, calling by God, leadership of Israel, reception of the Law, and death. Exodus through Deuteronomy focus especially on Moses’ life and work.
In Exodus, we read about Moses’ miraculous protection and adoption by Pharaoh’s daughter as an infant (Exodus 2:1-10). As a young man, he killed an Egyptian to protect a Hebrew slave and subsequently fled to the desert of Midian (Exodus 2:11-15). There God spoke to Moses from a burning bush and commissioned him to lead Israel out of slavery in Egypt (Exodus 3-4). Moses and Aaron then confronted Pharaoh, unleashing the ten plagues upon Egypt, and leading the Israelites out during the Exodus (Exodus 5-13). Moses led the people through the parting of the Red Sea, provided water and manna in the wilderness, and brought the Ten Commandments down from Mount Sinai (Exodus 14-20).
In Leviticus, the narrative pauses for God to give extensive laws and ritual regulations for sacrifice, purity, worship, and holiness to Moses, which Moses then taught the people. Numbers picks up the wilderness wanderings again, highlighting key events like the scouting of Canaan, Korah’s rebellion, the striking of the rock at Meribah, Moses’ sin at Kadesh, the bronze serpent, and military victories leading up to the plains of Moab.
Finally, Deuteronomy provides Moses’ final speeches and teachings to Israel, along with the account of his death before the people entered the Promised Land. Moses reviews the Law, reminds them of God’s blessings and requirements, and exhorts them to remain faithful. He then climbs Mount Nebo to view the land, and the Bible says “Moses the servant of the Lord died there in Moab, as the Lord had said. He buried him in Moab, in the valley opposite Beth Peor, but to this day no one knows where his grave is” (Deuteronomy 34:5-6).
Clearly, the Pentateuch testifies that Moses was the leader of Israel at the time of the Exodus from Egypt, that he gave them God’s Law during their wilderness wanderings, and prepared them to enter the Promised Land before his death. The testimony about Moses forms a coherent and consistent biographical portrait over the course of these five books.
Moses in the Prophets and Writings
Moses is mentioned frequently throughout the other books of the Old Testament as well. Joshua highlights God’s charge for Joshua to lead Israel after the “servant Moses” had died (Joshua 1:1-2). Judges, Samuel, Kings, Ezra, Nehemiah, Psalms, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Malachi and others continually refer back to the “Law of Moses” that was the foundation for Israel’s covenant relationship with God.
These references affirm Moses’ key role in mediating the Law that governed Israel’s religious, ethical, social, and political life for subsequent generations. The prophets frequently condemned Israel’s disobedience to the Mosaic Law and called the people to repent and return to God’s commands given through Moses. Moses’ leadership at the Exodus and provision of the Law clearly defined the succeeding history of Israel throughout the Old Testament period.
Moses and the New Testament
Moses continues to play a significant symbolic role in the New Testament as well. He appears with Elijah at Jesus’ transfiguration, showing that Jesus fulfills the Law and Prophets (Matthew 17:1-3). Jesus refers back to Moses’ writings to answer the rich man’s question about eternal life (Luke 16:29,31). He tells the disciples that Moses wrote about Him (John 5:46; cf. 1:17; 9:28-29). Likewise, Acts 3:22-23 cites Moses’ prophecy about a coming prophet like him.
The New Testament letters frequently refer to Moses to establish continuity between the Law, the prophets, and the new covenant in Christ. Romans 5:14 calls him “a pattern of the one to come.” 2 Corinthians 3 contrasts the glory of the Mosaic covenant and the greater glory of the Spirit. Hebrews 3-4 presents Moses as a servant of God’s house pointing ahead to Christ. Hebrews also calls attention to Moses’ faithful perseverance and choice to suffer with God’s people rather than enjoying the pleasures of sin for a time (Hebrews 11:23-28).
While certain Old Testament laws were fulfilled in ways not anticipated by Moses and others do not directly apply today, Christians still affirm Moses as the divinely appointed mediator of the covenant at Sinai. God spoke directly to the people of Israel through him, and his writings become an essential part of the biblical canon for Jews and Christians alike.
External References to Moses
A few ancient extra-biblical sources provide tantalizing references to Moses, though their testimony is limited. The Jewish historians Artapanus and Josephus (first century BC) include Moses in their histories of the Jews. Early Roman writers such as Tacitus, Pliny the Elder, and Strabo make brief references to Moses in their discussions of early Jewish history. Certain early Gnostic groups in the second century AD had their own elaborate stories about Moses.
While such references provide little substantive detail about Moses’ life, they do show that ancient Near Eastern cultures were aware of Moses and accepted him as a historical figure based on the biblical account. The many allusions to Moses throughout ancient Jewish and Christian literature also demonstrate that people understood him to be a real historical leader, not a mythical invention. There are no contemporaneous Egyptian records about Moses, given official Egyptian reluctance to document a humiliating event like the Exodus.
Moses the Author of the Pentateuch
Traditionally, Moses has been considered the substantial author of the Pentateuch, including the accounts describing his own life. Passages like Exodus 17:14 and 24:4,7 portray Moses recording events and preserving the law in writing. Deuteronomy 31:9 has God instructing Moses to write down the law. New Testament writers who quote from the books of Moses certainly believed he was responsible for large portions of the Pentateuch. The style and structure of certain narratives – such as the chronological gaps and textual repetitions – suggest some later editing processes as well.
While more skeptical 20th century scholars began to claim the Pentateuch was a product of later Israelite history, substantive evidence for these revisionist theories is lacking. There is nothing intrinsically unbelievable about an inspired leader like Moses recording foundational history and laws for the nation he governed. Academics often underestimate the importance of writing and texts for ancient Near Eastern cultures. It remains eminently reasonable to accept Moses’ substantial authorship of the Pentateuch.
The Uniqueness of Moses
When reading through the Pentateuch, Moses clearly stands out as the single most important human figure in the formative history of the nation of Israel. He was the deliverer, prophet, and lawgiver all in one. Moses had a unique encounter with God, spoke with Him face to face, performed incredible signs and wonders, and acted as mediator of the covenant. No other Old Testament figure served in all these combined leadership roles.
The Bible gives no indication that Moses was a fictional character or literary invention. To the contrary, his life and impact on Israel is presented as historical truth. Archeological discoveries continue to lend plausibility to the biblical account of ancient Israel in Egypt and the Exodus. Attacks on Moses’ existence rely more on philosophical skepticism and anti-supernatural assumptions rather than evidence. In fact, the extensive biblical testimony to Moses remains the single strongest witness to his long and influential life.
Conclusion
The Old Testament makes a remarkably consistent and credible case for Moses as leader of the Israelites, prophet of God, and transmitter of the Law that shaped the Jewish faith. The Pentateuch specifically provides substantial biographical material about Moses, highlighting his amazing calling, leadership, and unique relationship with the LORD. References throughout the Old Testament affirm the defining role Moses had in mediating God’s covenant. The New Testament in turn recognizes Moses’ historical importance while also showing how Jesus Christ fulfills the Law and promises given through Moses. While not without mysteries, challenges, and gaps, the biblical portrayal of Moses is that of a real man powerfully used by God to inspire faith in Him.
