The doctrine of papal infallibility is one of the most controversial teachings in the Catholic Church. It asserts that under certain conditions, the Pope can speak infallibly on matters of faith and morals. This belief raises important questions for many Christians seeking to understand what the Bible teaches. Does Scripture support the Catholic claim of an infallible papacy? Let’s explore what God’s Word has to say.
What is papal infallibility?
According to the First Vatican Council in 1870, the Pope can speak ex cathedra, meaning with supreme apostolic authority, regarding doctrine and morals. When invoking infallibility, the Pope must (1) speak as the successor of Peter, (2) speak on a matter of faith or morals, and (3) declare a definitive teaching that must be held by the whole Church. Catholics consider such ex cathedra statements infallible and irreformable. In fallible definitions, the Pope cannot err or teach heresy when defining doctrine for belief by the whole Church.
To date, this charism has only been explicitly invoked twice: the Immaculate Conception (1854) and the Assumption of Mary (1950). However, Catholics believe that popes exercise a general infallibility of office day-to-day when reaffirming, clarifying, or expanding doctrine. Hence, while infallibility is rarely formally invoked, the magisterium exercises around it frequently.
What does the Bible say?
Scripture does not explicitly teach papal infallibility. The New Testament does not record Jesus establishing an infallible papacy or Peter exercising infallible authority. In fact, Peter is rebuked and corrected at times (Galatians 2:11-14). The apostles debate doctrine in council at Jerusalem (Acts 15), rather than appealing to any one leader as infallible interpreter. While Peter is central in leading the early church, he seems to exemplify the confession that Jesus is the Christ (Matthew 16:16-18) rather than exercising infallible doctrinal authority.
Two key biblical passages are cited regarding papal authority and infallibility:
Matthew 16:18-19
Jesus said to Peter, “And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.”
Catholics argue this establishes Peter’s unique role in leading the church. The “keys of the kingdom” represent authoritative leadership, and “binding and loosing” represent doctrinal authority. Yet while significant authority is clearly given to Peter, infallibility is not explicitly taught. Peter is a central, but not solitary or infallible, leader in the early church (Galatians 2:9).
Luke 22:31-32
Jesus tells Peter, “Simon, Simon, behold, Satan demanded to have you, that he might sift you like wheat, but I have prayed for you that your faith may not fail. And when you have turned again, strengthen your brothers.”
Catholics argue this reveals Peter’s special role in strengthening the whole Church. But the passage focuses on Peter’s faith during an imminent time of testing, not on a permanent infallible authority. Peter is never described as infallible, but rather he is led into error and corrected.
Challenges for papal infallibility
Several biblical factors challenge papal infallibility:
- No evidence the apostles considered Peter infallible or the sole authority over the church.
- Peter describes himself as a “fellow elder” rather than a pope (1 Peter 5:1).
- Many church leaders, not just Peter, contributed authoritatively to early church doctrine (Acts 15:6-21).
- Paul corrects Peter publicly when he is in error (Galatians 2:11-14).
- Paul asserts authority directly from Christ (Galatians 1:1), not derivatively through Peter.
In addition, practical history presents obstacles to papal infallibility:
- Some popes held clearly unbiblical beliefs, like Pope Honorius I supporting the monothelite heresy.
- Catholic dogmas defined as infallible have been modified or abandoned over time, like limbo.
- Different popes have contradicted each other on important doctrinal issues.
- Church councils like Trent and Vatican I debated and defined dogmas, rather than a pope unilaterally exercising infallibility.
Perspectives on papal authority
Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox Christians have some shared and some differing views on papal authority:
- Catholic: The Pope has universal jurisdiction, supreme authoritative primacy, and infallibility when defining dogma for the whole Church.
- Protestant: The Pope has no special authority or infallibility; church leadership is localized and shared among leaders.
- Orthodox: The Ecumenical Patriarch has a “primacy of honor” but no jurisdictional authority over other bishops; no infallible dogmatic authority is ascribed to any one see or leader.
Catholic teaching ascribes to the Pope a unique jurisdictional, authoritative, and infallible status not recognized by Protestant or Orthodox traditions. Yet Protestants can affirm a certain priority of respect and influence to the bishop of Rome without acknowledging infallibility.
Hints of papal authority
While the New Testament does not explicitly teach infallibility, some traces of special papal authority do seem present:
- Peter is listed first among the apostles and is frequent spokesman for them (Matthew 10:2, Acts 2:14).
- Peter plays a leading role in the early Jerusalem church (Acts 1-12).
- Peter’s name is mentioned 192 times in the NT; the most of any apostle.
- All four NT lists of the apostles place Peter first (Matthew 10:2-4, Mark 3:16-19; Luke 6:14-16; Acts 1:13).
- Peter often acts as representative and primary leader of the apostles (Matthew 18:21, Mark 8:29, Luke 12:41, John 6:68).
This evidence suggests a certain primacy of importance and leadership for Peter that sets him apart from the other apostles. Yet a distinction in role does not necessarily establish papal infallibility, which some argue goes beyond biblical support.
Historical development of infallibility
The history of the infallibility doctrine reveals a gradual articulation.
- Early church fathers emphasized succession from Peter but do not declare infallibility.
- In the 5th century, some popes assert infallibility in doctrinal letters.
- In the 11th century, Pope Gregory VII strongly asserts papal primacy and authority.
- In the 13th century, Pope Innocent III declares popes stand between God and man, above kings.
- 19th century culminates in formal dogma of infallibility at Vatican I.
Supporters argue this shows an unfolding understanding of the Spirit’s work in the papacy. Critics argue it shows a novelty of doctrine absent in the early church.
Practical considerations
Several factors lead some modern Catholics to question infallibility:
- Papal statements at times had to be corrected later, like certain 20th century encyclicals.
- Some worry infallibility discourages academic debate within Catholic theology.
- Papal pronouncements on complex issues like sexuality and bioethics seem open to misuse.
- In a globally connected church, highly centralized authority raises concern about uniformity and adaptation.
Practical experience and changing social conditions cause some Catholics to emphasize collegiality and diversity over hierarchical infallibility. Yet infallibility remains vital to Catholic identity for most.
Perspectives from other Christian traditions
Orthodox, Anglican, and Protestant Christians offer important critiques of papal infallibility from their traditions:
- Orthodox: Eastern tradition emphasizes collective conciliar authority by bishops rather than centralized papal infallibility.
- Anglican: Anglicanism maintains a unified global church without absolute centralized authority in Rome.
- Reformed: Reformers emphasized Scripture as the supreme authority over church tradition or hierarchical declarations.
- Methodist: Wesleyan theology remains rooted in Scripture rather than absolutist claims to infallibility.
Most non-Catholic traditions retain episcopal authority without papal infallibility. Their perspectives remind Catholics that absolute certainty on all doctrines may not be necessary or helpful for Christian unity.
Scriptural balance on church authority
Key principles from Scripture balance papal authority and infallibility:
- The church has teaching authority in matters of faith (Ephesians 3:10, Matthew 28:19-20).
- Truth is known reliably but imperfectly and partially this side of Christ’s return (1 Corinthians 13:9-12).
- Leaders have authority but are not immune from error or sin (Acts 15:19-21, Galatians 2:11).
- Right doctrine is important to guide the church (2 Timothy 2:15, Titus 2:1).
- Humble love in serving others matters more than certainty or status (1 Corinthians 13:2, 1 Peter 5:2-3).
Scripture balances teaching authority with humility and love. Wise church leadership requires deep learning without demands for absolute certainty.
Conclusions on infallibility
In conclusion, the doctrine of papal infallibility raises important discussions both within Catholicism and between Catholics and other Christians. Several conclusions emerge:
- The New Testament does not explicitly teach papal infallibility, yet hints at a certain priority for Peter.
- Historical evolution of the doctrine evidences gradual development, not early consensus.
- Practical experience surfaces tensions around highly centralized authority.
- Non-Catholic critiques emphasize collegiality and caution on claims of certainty.
- Scripture balances teaching authority with love and epistemic humility.
Sincere Christians can thoughtfully disagree on this issue. Perhaps carefully defined authority without absolute infallibility offers a path for dialogue and unity, with Christ at the center.
