The concept of penance is central to the Christian faith. Though the word “penance” itself does not appear in most English translations of the Bible, the underlying principles and practices associated with penance are present throughout Scripture.
At its core, penance refers to repentance, contrition, and atonement for sins. It typically involves acts of self-denial, prayer, and deeds of charity as a means of expressing sorrow for wrongdoing and seeking forgiveness and reconciliation with God.
Old Testament Foundations
In the Old Testament, the Israelites made numerous sin offerings and guilt offerings as forms of penance and atonement for various transgressions (Leviticus 4-5). These offerings were a means of expressing contrition and seeking forgiveness from God.
After his adultery with Bathsheba and effective murder of her husband Uriah, David declared, “I have sinned against the Lord” (2 Samuel 12:13). As an act of repentance, David fasted and lay prostrate on the ground for seven days pleading with God for mercy (2 Samuel 12:16).
In the book of Nehemiah, the Israelites confessed their “sins and iniquities” through an extensive prayer of repentance (Nehemiah 1:6-7, 9:1-3). They also demonstrated their penitence through acts of mourning, fasting, and separation from foreigners (Nehemiah 9:1-2).
The Old Testament prophets repeatedly called Israel to repentance, prayer, and acts of humility and charity as forms of penance for their idolatry and injustice (Isaiah 58:3-7, Jeremiah 36:6-7, Hosea 14:2, Jonah 3:6-9).
Penance and Baptism
The connection between penance and baptism appears in the ministry of John the Baptist, who called people to repent and be baptized as a sign of penance (Matthew 3:1-2, Luke 3:3). Baptism offers the forgiveness of sins, and repentance is closely tied to this cleansing.
In the early church, baptism was preceded by prayer, fasting, and confession of sins as a way to show penitence and prepare converts to receive God’s forgiveness (Acts 2:38, 19:18-19). The ordinance of baptism serves as both a symbol and means of penance.
Penance Through Confession
A critical biblical foundation for the practice of sacramental confession as an act of penance is John 20:21-23. Here, the resurrected Jesus commissioned his disciples with these words:
Jesus said to them again, “Peace be with you. As the Father has sent me, even so I am sending you.” And when he had said this, he breathed on them and said to them, “Receive the Holy Spirit. If you forgive the sins of any, they are forgiven them; if you withhold forgiveness from any, it is withheld.” (John 20:21-23)
This passage links confession of sins with the forgiveness administered through Christ’s ministers. Such confession serves as an act of repentance and penance.
James 5:16 instructs Christians to “confess your sins to one another and pray for one another, that you may be healed.” This mutual confession and intercession suggests a sacramental role in reconciling sinners with God and the church community.
Paul exhorts Christians to examine their conscience and partake of Communion in a worthy manner, lest they eat and drink judgment on themselves (1 Corinthians 11:27-29). This again links penance with admission of guilt and cleansing from sin.
Penance Through Mortification
“Mortification” refers to putting sinful deeds and desires to death. The idea comes from verses such as Romans 8:13: “For if you live according to the flesh you will die, but if by the Spirit you put to death the deeds of the body, you will live.”
Colossians 3:5 commands Christians to “put to death therefore what is earthly in you: sexual immorality, impurity, passion, evil desire, and covetousness, which is idolatry.” Mortification involves denying fleshly cravings as a form of penance and self-discipline.
Fasting, another form of mortification, facilitating greater focus on God. In scripture it often expresses mourning and repentance for sin.
In Acts 13:2-3, prayer and fasting precedes the commissioning of Saul (Paul) and Barnabas as missionaries. Fasting can thus accompany repentance andprepare one for service.
Penance in Jesus’s Parables
Several parables of Jesus relate to penance and forgiveness from God. In Luke 15, the stories of the lost sheep, lost coin, and lost (prodigal) son depict sinners who repent and return to God. Each involves an admission of sin and humble homecoming.
Luke 18:9-14 contrasts the penitent tax collector who prays, “God, be merciful to me, a sinner!” with the self-righteous Pharisee. Jesus declares the repentant man righteous rather than the outwardly moral Pharisee.
The parable of the unforgiving servant (Matthew 18:21-35) shows one who receives lavish mercy from his king yet refuses to forgive a small debt of another. The king punishes the unmerciful servant, illustrating the link between receiving grace and extending it through penance.
Penance in the Epistles
As mentioned regarding baptism and confession, New Testament letters connect penance with admission of sin, contrition, and cleansing. 2 Corinthians 7:8-11 describes godly grief over wrongdoing that leads to repentance and salvation. The Corinthians’ penitence produced a “zeal for righteousness.”
In Acts 19:18-19, following the example of the Ephesians, many confessed their sinful practices and burned materials related to sorcery and the occult as an outward sign of inner repentance.
1 John 1:9 assures Christians that “if we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness.” Here, confession accompanies the cleansing of penance.
Penance in Revelation
The book of Revelation begins with messages to seven churches in Asia Minor. Several are exhorted to “repent” of sins like idolatry, sexual immorality, and spiritual apathy (Revelation 2:5, 2:16; 3:3, 3:19). The call to repentance echoes the desire for penitent hearts.
Later in Revelation, earth’s inhabitants still “did not repent of their murders or their sorceries or their sexual immorality or their thefts” (Revelation 9:21). Their impenitence perpetuates the judgment of God.
In Revelation 2:5 and 3:3, the risen Christ warns that he may come as a “thief” upon the unrepentant. This imagery suggests that continuing in sin forfeits blessing and welcome from Christ at his return.
Old Testament Sacrifices and Penance
Blood sacrifices were central to Old Testament religion. They expressed contrition for sins and appealed to God’s mercy. Though imperfect, they symbolically transferred guilt and foreshadowed the ultimate sacrifice of Christ (Hebrews 10:1-4).
Mandatory sin offerings assumed the ongoing need for penance and sacrifice (Leviticus 4:1-35). Greater sins required more costly sacrifices, showing the proportionality between transgression and penance (Leviticus 5:5-7).
Trespass offerings addressed sins against others involving restitution, illustrating a connection between penance and making amends (Leviticus 5:20-26, 6:1-7).
On the Day of Atonement, sacrifice for the high priest and people expressed collective penitence and cleansing (Leviticus 16:1-34).
The Psalms link repentance and offerings for sin. “The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit; a broken and contrite heart, O God, you will not despise” (Psalm 51:17; see also 32:5, 38:18).
Penitential Psalms
Building on the sacrificial system, seven psalms express special contrition and desire for God’s mercy:
- Psalm 6
- Psalm 32
- Psalm 38
- Psalm 51
- Psalm 102
- Psalm 130
- Psalm 143
These penitential psalms capture the remorseful spirit and hunger for forgivenessembodied in true penance. Psalm 51 stands out as perhaps the greatest prayer of repentance.
New Testament Fulfillment in Christ
The New Testament presents Jesus’s death as the once-for-all sacrifice that accomplished complete atonement for sins (Romans 3:25, Hebrews 7:27). His sacrifice exemplifies perfect penitence – though sinless himself, Christ willingly took others’ guilt and paid their penalty through his blood.
Because of Christ’s substitutionary death, believers can have bold access to God’s grace and forgiveness (Hebrews 4:16, 10:19-22). Trusting in Christ’s sufficient sacrifice prompts repentance and overflowing gratitude.
At the same time, Christians remain sinners who continue to require God’s grace daily. The process of sanctification leads believers to deeper recognition of sin and greater repentance. Faith in Christ does not negate penance but motivates it.
Penance in Church History
In the early post-apostolic centuries, churches practiced confession of sins and exclusion from Communion as a disciplinary measure. The severity and duration of exclusion varied according to the nature of the offense.
By the third century, repentance for grievous sins like apostasy or adultery often entailed public confession and a lengthy period of penance marked by prayer, fasting, and separation from the fellowship.
In the sixth century, Celtic monks introduced the practice of private auricular confession to a priest along with assigned penances. This became standard in the Western church by the twelfth century following edicts by Pope Innocent III at the Fourth Lateran Council.
The Reformers criticized the elaborate system of penances imposed through auricular confession and sought to recover early church practices centered on corporate confession and self-examination. They affirmed the necessity of repentance but rejected imposed works as the basis of forgiveness.
Penance Practices Today
Among Catholic and Orthodox communions, the sacrament of Penance (Reconciliation) remains central. Through confessing mortal sins to a priest and completing assigned acts of penance, members receive absolution and return to a state of grace.
In Protestant churches, penance is generally less formalized. There is more emphasis on confessing sins directly to God and repenting through inward sorrow and change. Corporate confession and lament do feature in some liturgical traditions.
Many believers practice self-imposed penances like fasting, prayer vigils, and giving to the poor, especially during Lent. These voluntary acts of discipline and devotion aim to bring greater spiritual focus and express contrition.
The Proper Place of Penance
Penance has potential to reflect a works-based approach to forgiveness if treated legalistically. However, scripture links penance with grace, viewing it as a grateful response to mercy received, rather than the basis of it.
Outward acts of penance have value insofar as they cultivate contrite hearts that turn afresh to Christ and seek reconciliation. Sincere repentance also moves believers to make amends and reforms where possible.
For Christians, penance is not a path to salvation but a recurring part of walking in salvation. Just as we continually need God’s grace and forgiveness, our penitence should be continual as well.
