The Apocrypha (also known as the Deuterocanonical books) refers to a collection of ancient Jewish writings that were not included in the Hebrew Bible. These books and additions to books of the Hebrew Bible were, however, included in early versions of the Christian Old Testament, including the influential Greek Septuagint translation. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches recognize some or all of these writings as Scripture, while Protestants generally do not.
Origin and meaning of “Apocrypha”
The word “apocrypha” comes from the Greek word meaning “hidden, secret.” Early Christians used this term for books accepted by some Christian groups but not accepted as part of the Hebrew Bible. The term originally referred to writings that were hidden not because of their heretical content but because they were restricted from general reading or concealed from all but the initiated. Later the term took on the meaning of spurious or false writings.
Old Testament canon history
The formation of the Old Testament canon took place over the course of centuries, beginning sometime after the latest books were written and completed around 100 AD. There was some fluidity in the collections of books recognized as Scripture in Judaism during this period.
The Hebrew Bible consists of the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nevi’im), and the Writings (Ketuvim). The canon of the Prophets seems to have been fixed early on, but the books included in the Writings were subject to some debate. The Council of Jamnia (c. 90 AD), a gathering of Jewish rabbis and scholars, is traditionally associated with finalizing the Old Testament canon. However, the decisions of Jamnia represented the culmination of a long process rather than a new decision.
The Septuagint (LXX) is the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible produced in Alexandria, Egypt in the 3rd to 1st centuries BC. The Septuagint includes the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical books interspersed throughout. When early Christian authors cited the Old Testament, they most often used the Septuagint rather than the Hebrew texts.
Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical books
The Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical books include:
– Tobit
– Judith
– Additions to Esther
– Wisdom of Solomon
– Sirach (also called Ecclesiasticus)
– Baruch
– Letter of Jeremiah
– Additions to Daniel
– Song of the Three Young Men
– Susanna
– Bel and the Dragon
– 1 Maccabees
– 2 Maccabees
There are also additional passages in Esther and Daniel in the Septuagint that are not found in the Hebrew versions.
Use in early Christianity
The early Christians, many of whom were Greek-speaking, relied heavily on the Septuagint as their Old Testament Scripture. The New Testament authors quote from or allude to the Apocryphal books over 230 times. For example, the Book of Wisdom is quoted in Matthew 27:42-43 and a story from 2 Maccabees provides the basis for Hebrews 11:35.
Some of the early church fathers, such as Augustine, recognized the Apocrypha as Scripture alongside the rest of the Old Testament canon. Jerome included the Apocrypha in his seminal Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible around 400 AD. The Apocryphal books were also interspersed throughout the Old Testament in major early English Bible translations like the King James Version.
However, there was some debate about the full canonicity of the Apocrypha. In the 4th century, Melito of Sardis and Athanasius enumerated the books of the Old Testament and did not include the Apocrypha. The regional councils of Laodicea (360 AD) and Carthage (397 AD) debated the canon issue and affirmed most of the Apocryphal books.
So while there was some disagreement, the Apocryphal books were widely treated as Scripture by the early church. The most intense questioning of their canonicity came later during the Protestant Reformation.
Reformation debate over the Apocrypha
During the 16th century Protestant Reformation, the contents of the biblical canon became a topic of serious debate between Protestants and Catholics. The reformers raised doctrinal objections to some teaching contained in the Apocrypha. For example:
– 2 Maccabees 12:43-46 endorses prayer for the dead
– Tobit advocates magical practices forbidden by Deuteronomy 18:10-12
– Wisdom of Solomon teaches an intermediary role for Wisdom
In response to these concerns, Protestant leaders like Martin Luther began to question the canonicity of the Apocrypha. Some included the Apocrypha in Bible translations but separated it into a distinct section between the Old and New Testaments. The preface of the King James Version refers to the books as:
“…the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine.”
Eventually most Protestant Bibles removed the Apocrypha entirely. Roman Catholic Bibles continued to incorporate the Apocrypha mixed throughout the Old Testament as in the Vulgate. In 1546, the Catholic Council of Trent responded to the Protestant rejections by affirming the canonicity of most of the Apocryphal books. [Exceptions: 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, and the Prayer of Manasseh.]
Apocrypha contents and highlights
While Protestants generally view these texts as non-canonical, the Apocryphal books provide interesting historical insights into the period between the Old and New Testaments. They describe the Maccabean revolt against Syrian oppression and help explain the origins of various Jewish sects and practices. Here is a brief overview of the Apocryphal books and their notable contents:
Tobit – Set during the Assyrian exile, it illustrates piety in the midst of hardship. Includes instructive ethical teachings and describes the archangel Raphael in disguise guiding and protecting Tobias.
Judith – Heroic story of Judith, a daring and beautiful widow, who saves Israel by infiltrating the enemy camp of Nebuchadnezzar’s general and cutting off his head. She urges holiness and fidelity to the Law.
Additions to Esther – Expands the canonical Book of Esther by inserting prayers of Mordecai and Esther along with their inner thoughts and motivations. Adds details like Haman’s attempted murder of Esther and God’s intervention on behalf of the Jews.
Wisdom of Solomon – Written to diaspora Jews to reinforce their commitment to Jewish wisdom and Law. Uses Platonic terms and concepts to interpret the Exodus. Describes the paths of righteousness and unrighteousness.
Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) – Collections of wise sayings on an array of subjects – ethics, etiquette, business, education, friendship, justice, etc. Offers practical wisdom for righteous living.
Baruch – Reportedly written by Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe. Includes prayers confessing the sins that led to the exile and longing that God will bring restoration. Restates many prophetic warnings and hopes.
Letter of Jeremiah – Attributed to Jeremiah and warning Jews not to worship idols or false gods. Claims that idols are manmade and worthless rather than divine. Deprecates the worthless nature of idol worship.
Additions to Daniel – Inserts Susanna’s trial and vindication at the start; follows with Daniel destroying the pagan idol Bel; then adds the story of Daniel exposing the false priests of the dragon idol. Promotes faith and loyalty in persecution.
1 Maccabees – Retells Jewish history focusing on the Maccabean revolt against Antiochus IV’s suppression of Judaism and desecration of the Temple. Records the cleansing and restoration of the Temple after rebellion.
2 Maccabees – Covers the same era as 1 Maccabees but focuses more on theology and includes traditions about praying for the dead and offering sin offerings. Less historically reliable than 1 Maccabees.
Modern Christian approaches to the Apocrypha
Contemporary opinions on the Apocrypha tend to follow denominational lines:
– Roman Catholics affirm the Deuterocanonicals as integral parts of the Old Testament canon.
– Eastern Orthodox regard the books as fully canonical with minor exceptions. The Prayer of Manasseh, Psalm 151, and 3 Maccabees are appendices rather than canonical.
– Protestants still generally reject any canonical status for the Apocrypha and do not print them in Bibles. But many recognize their historical significance. Some even publish Apocrypha editions for reading and edification, just not as inspired Scripture.
– Anglicans and Lutherans have an intermediate perspective that acknowledges the Apocrypha’s theological value but does not grant it the same canonical authority as accepted books of the Hebrew Bible.
So the Apocryphal debate initiated centuries ago by the Reformers still influences how Christians view these writings today. Their disputed status prompts intriguing questions about the principles for canonization and authority. Even so, most branches of Christianity affirm the rich historical witness provided by the Apocrypha as the people of God navigated tumultuous eras between the Testaments. While opinions differ on canonicity, their enduring spiritual impact is undeniable.