Biblical Hebrew, also known as Classical Hebrew, is the ancient form of the Hebrew language used in the writing of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh). The earliest texts of the Bible were composed in Biblical Hebrew between the 10th century BCE and the turn of the Common Era. Biblical Hebrew is one of the official languages of Israel, but it is no longer spoken as a native language. Modern Hebrew, the contemporary version of Hebrew used in Israel today, is derived from Biblical Hebrew but has evolved considerably over the centuries.
Some key features of Biblical Hebrew include:
- It is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet.
- It contains 22 consonants and vowel pointing was added later.
- It has a specific vocabulary and word order different from Modern Hebrew.
- Verb forms are more complex and nuanced.
- The grammar relies heavily on prefixes, suffixes, and word roots.
One of the most important contributions of Biblical Hebrew is the Hebrew Bible. The Hebrew Bible, also known as the Tanakh or Mikra, contains the foundational scriptures of Judaism. It includes the Torah (the five books of Moses), the Nevi’im (the Prophets), and the Ketuvim (the Writings). The Hebrew Bible was originally composed and transmitted entirely in Biblical Hebrew. Although some portions of the Bible have subsequently been translated into different languages like Greek and Aramaic, the original Hebrew texts have been preserved over centuries. Even the Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in the mid-20th century, which are the oldest existing biblical manuscripts dating back to 150 BCE – 70 CE, contain the books of the Hebrew Bible in Biblical Hebrew.
Beyond the Hebrew Bible, Biblical Hebrew was used in a variety of other Jewish religious and literary works during the Second Temple period, like the Mishnah, Talmud, Midrashim, and Dead Sea Scrolls. Hebrew fell out of everyday use as a spoken language around 200 CE, but continued to be used as a literary and liturgical language by Jews across the diaspora. The study of Biblical Hebrew today helps scholars analyze and translate the Hebrew Bible, understand ancient Jewish history and culture, and connect with the sacred texts that form the foundation of Judaism.
Biblical Hebrew introduces several distinctive grammatical features not found in Modern Hebrew:
- Verb Conjugations – Biblical Hebrew has seven verb conjugation patterns (binyanim) that express different verb aspects like intensive, causative, reflexive, etc. The binyanim create sophisticated nuances in how actions are performed.
- Object Pronominal Suffixes – Pronoun objects like “me”, “him”, “us” are usually suffixes attached to verbs rather than standalone words.
- Definite Article – Biblical Hebrew indicates the definite article “the” by prefixing /ha-/ to nouns instead of using a separate word.
- Waw Consecutivum – This special prefixed form of the conjunction /waw/ is used to indicate sequences of actions in narrative texts.
- Parataxis – Sentences are strung together with a simple /waw/ conjunction instead of subordinating clauses, unlike English.
Biblical Hebrew vocabulary also reflects key aspects of ancient Jewish culture and religion. Some important semantic fields include:
- Words about covenant, election, and promise reflecting God’s relationship with Israel.
- Cultic terminology about the Tabernacle, Temple, sacrifices, purity laws, and priesthood.
- Agricultural terms connected to the Land of Israel.
- Flora and fauna native to the Middle East.
Studying Biblical Hebrew lexicon and morphology can reveal subtle theological meanings in the text. For example, the Hebrew noun chesed translated as “mercy, kindness, love” implies covenant faithfulness. The verb shuv meaning “to turn” also bears connotations of repentance. Even something as simple as Hebrew word order where verbs precede subjects can emphasize actions over actors.
Biblical Hebrew texts have both literary and practical linguistic features that aid comprehension and memorization. Devices like alliteration, chiasmus, inclusio, and parallelism add artistic flair and make passages more memorable. The concise verb-subject-object word order facilitates oral transmission. Songs, prayers, and prophetic oracles use elevated poetic language. Accurate preservation of the Hebrew source texts with all their nuances greatly impacts biblical interpretation and translation.
Here are some examples illustrating key aspects of Biblical Hebrew grammar and style:
- “Yitgadal v’yitkadash sh’mei raba.” – The first line of the Jewish mourner’s prayer, the Kaddish, praising God in Aramaic. This demonstrates how post-biblical Judaism continued using Hebrew and Aramaic in liturgy.
- “Vayomer Elohim yehi or vayehi or” (Genesis 1:3) – “And God said ‘Let there be light’ and there was light.” Illustrates verb-subject-object word order and parataxis using the /waw/ conjunction.
- “Sh’ma Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai echad” (Deuteronomy 6:4) – “Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one.” The quintessential statement of Jewish monotheism recited daily in prayers.
- “Hineih mah tov u’mah nayim shevet achim gam yachad” (Psalm 133:1) – “How good and pleasant it is when brothers dwell together in unity.” Example of Hebrew poetry using parallelism and alliteration.
Biblical Hebrew declined steadily after the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. As Jewish communities flourished across the Middle East and North Africa, Hebrew was supplanted by Aramaic and Greek. By 200 CE, Hebrew ceased to be a spoken vernacular. Yet it remained preserved as a liturgical language and continued to be studied by religious scholars. Medieval grammarians like Saadia Gaon and Judah ben David Hayyuj pioneered the scholarly study of Biblical Hebrew. They developed principles of Hebrew grammar and lexicography and added Tiberian vowel notation to the consonantal text. This work by Masoretic scholars to codify the biblical texts nurtured Hebrew as a literary language.
The revival of Biblical Hebrew was spurred in the 19th century by the Jewish Enlightenment and nationalist movement to return to Israel. Pioneering Jewish scholars and writers like Eliezer Ben Yehuda drove the reinvention of Hebrew as a modern spoken language. They built Modern Hebrew by adapting Biblical Hebrew grammar and vocabulary to contemporary use. Although Modern Hebrew has diverged from its biblical ancestor, Biblical Hebrew remains the linguistic heart of the sacred Jewish scriptures. It continues to be painstakingly parsed and studied as the language of the Tanakh.
In summary, Biblical Hebrew is the ancient historic form of Hebrew in which the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament was composed. As the language of ancient Israel and Judah, Biblical Hebrew preserves the words spoken by the biblical prophets and populated the Jewish scriptural canon. Alongside Aramaic, it was the primary Jewish vernacular during the Second Temple era until it began to decline after the 1st century CE. Yet Hebrew persisted as a written language for Jewish religious study. In the modern era, Biblical Hebrew provided the foundation for the revival of Hebrew as a contemporary spoken language. The ongoing study of Biblical Hebrew grammar, lexicon, and literature remains vital for understanding the Hebrew Bible – the bedrock on which Judaism rests.
