Fundamentalism refers to a certain conservative religious movement that arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among evangelical Christians, primarily in the United States. The fundamentalist movement emphasized a literal interpretation of the Bible as the infallible word of God and insisted on adherence to certain core doctrines like the inerrancy of Scripture, the virgin birth of Christ, his substitutionary atonement and bodily resurrection, and the authenticity of biblical miracles.
The roots of fundamentalism go back to the publication of a series of pamphlets called The Fundamentals between 1910 and 1915, which were funded by two wealthy Presbyterian laymen and written by conservative Protestant scholars. These pamphlets affirmed traditional Protestant beliefs in opposition to liberal currents in theology and biblical scholarship that questioned the historical accuracy and divine origins of the Bible. The term “fundamentalism” itself derives from these seminal pamphlets.
In the 1920s, fundamentalism emerged as a distinct movement within American Protestantism in reaction to modernist tendencies and theological liberalism in the major Protestant denominations. Fundamentalists were alarmed by higher criticism of the Bible coming out of Germany, which treated the Scriptures as historically conditioned human documents rather than the inspired word of God. Evolution was another major concern, challenging a literal reading of Genesis. Fundamentalists like William Bell Riley, John Roach Straton and William Jennings Bryan organized for doctrinal orthodoxy and sought to purge the denominations of modernist theology and higher criticism. This led to a series of denominational splits between modernists and fundamentalists in the Northern Baptist Convention, the Presbyterian Church, and the Disciples of Christ.
The fundamentalist-modernist controversy came to a head in the 1920s with the Scopes Monkey Trial, which pitted William Jennings Bryan against Clarence Darrow over the issue of teaching evolution in public schools. Though Bryan technically won the case, the trial led to negative publicity for fundamentalism as excessively backward, anti-intellectual and intolerant. In the following decades, most fundamentalists withdrew from the major Protestant denominations into new independent churches, networks of Bible institutes and colleges, and parachurch groups like the National Association of Evangelicals. They emphasized personal piety and separatism over social reform or political activism.
Fundamentalism was never a unified centralized movement but rather a loose coalition of independent churches, denominations, schools and preachers who were united by common doctrinal concerns and opposition to liberalism and modernism. There was always internal debate over issues like eschatology, ecclesiology, separatism and so forth. Fundamentalism crossed denominational lines and had Baptists, Presbyterians, Pentecostals and holiness believers in its ranks. Despite fragmentation, the movement did cohere around some key beliefs:
– Biblical inerrancy – The Bible is divinely inspired, historically and scientifically factual and without error in its original autographs.
– Virgin birth – Jesus was miraculously conceived and born to the Virgin Mary through the power of the Holy Spirit, not through natural means.
– Substitutionary atonement – Christ died on the cross as a substitutionary sacrifice to appease the wrath of God and atone for the sins of mankind.
– Bodily resurrection – Jesus rose physically from the grave and ascended to heaven in bodily form.
– Authenticity of miracles – All the supernatural miracles described in the Bible literally happened as recorded.
– Creationism – God specially created the universe and life on earth; the Genesis account should be taken literally.
– Second coming – Jesus will literally return to earth again in the future.
– Lostness of unbelievers – All those who reject Christ will suffer eternal punishment.
– Separation from the world – Fundamentalists emphasized personal holiness and separation from worldly influences.
– Dispensational premillennialism – Most fundamentalists held to a dispensational view of history that divided time into different epochs and expected a literal 1,000 year earthly reign of Christ in the future.
Fundamentalists tended to view the Bible as scientifically and historically inerrant. They opposed higher criticism and approaches to Scripture that treated it as historically conditioned or culturally relative. The supernatural elements of Scripture like miracles were affirmed against naturalistic explanations. Fundamentalists opposed evolution as an unbiblical theory that undermined divine creation. On moral issues, fundamentalists tended to be conservative, opposing homosexuality, abortion, women’s ordination and moral relativism. Politically, they were largely disengaged from social and political causes for much of the 20th century, though became more active in the religious right of the late 1900s.
Fundamentalism spread beyond the U.S. to other parts of the world. There were parallel fundamentalist currents within Catholicism, Islam, Judaism and Hinduism in the 20th century that echoed many of the same concerns – opposing liberalizing tendencies, affirming traditional doctrines and moral values, and calling for renewed piety and obedience to sacred scriptures. Protestant fundamentalism influenced certain evangelical movements in the developing world.
Today, fundamentalism remains a vibrant force within American Protestantism. Denominations like the Southern Baptist Convention, Assemblies of God, Churches of Christ, Independent Baptists, Missouri Synod Lutherans and others have fundamentalist elements while also reaching more broadly. Many Bible colleges and seminaries, parachurch media ministries, apologetics organizations, publishers and missions agencies promote fundamentalist theology and principles. Controversies over biblical inerrancy, evolution, biblical criticism and moral relativism continue to divide many denominations. Fundamentalism remains a sticky point in battles over the future direction of global evangelicalism.
While retaining certain definitional commonalities, fundamentalism has always struggled with the question of the scope, rationale and means of separation from those deemed doctrinally or morally compromising. Some fundamentalists are characterized by a “come-outist” mentality of withdrawing from all suspect denominations and associations. Others promote “stand-offism,” remaining within denominations while resisting liberal trends. And some advocate “stay-inism,” remaining engaged with other evangelicals while promoting orthodoxy and biblical fidelity. These complex tensions mean fundamentalism resists easy categorization.
Both critics and proponents of fundamentalism point to what they see as dangers in the movement’s tendencies. Critics argue that fundamentalism promotes simplistic, superficial readings of Scripture that ignore historical context and complexities of interpretation. They see it as too rigid, legalistic, militant and separatist. Fundamentalism is critiqued for fostering anti-intellectualism, ranging from distrust of higher education to book burning and banning. Some contend that its doctrinal narrowness results in a harsh, judgmental spirit that divides Christians. Its militancy is seen as breeding extremism and even violence at times. Fundamentalism is also critiqued for reactionary opposition to social change and cultural engagement, reducing the gospel to private piety.
Defenders counter that fundamentalism played a needed role in preserving orthodox theology and moral values from erosion. They say it called liberal Protestants back to biblical authority and doctrinal fidelity amid dangerous drift. Fundamentalism is credited with spurring evangelistic and missionary zeal, training influential pastors and scholars, and inspiring renewed emphasis on personal discipleship. Its members contend that separatism is sometimes necessary to maintain the integrity of the faith against compromise. Fundamentalists see themselves as bearing witness to timeless biblical truth, not clinging to traditions. They reject charges of militancy, arguing they are simply opposing dangerous ideas they see undermining the gospel.
Looking at fundamentalism’s historical legacy provides a mixed assessment. It represented a backlash against perceived doctrinal drift and defended traditional Protestant theology amid modernist currents. However, its anti-intellectual tendencies at times damaged thoughtful reflection on complex issues at the intersection of Christian faith and modern thought. Its separatism sometimes descended into paranoia or rancor against fellow Christians with slightly different interpretations. The Scopes trial gave fundamentalism a lasting image problem it has struggled to overcome. But its call to personal holiness, concern for orthodoxy and passion for evangelism and missions enriched global Christianity. Its staunch opposition to moral relativism and confessional loyalty help explain its continued resilience despite repeated predictions of its demise as a movement.
As evangelicalism has splintered and diversified theologically in recent decades, debates over the scope and limits of evangelical identity frequently reference fundamentalism as representing one edge of the spectrum. Some argue an evangelical big tent needs to be open to greater diversity in approaching biblical authority, miracles, evolution and moral questions. They advocate dialogue with secularism to find common ground based on shared values. Others counter that too much doctrinal loosening could enable dangerous theological drift and compromise evangelical commitment to the unique truth claims of Christianity. These enduring tensions ensure that fundamentalist influences will likely persist within American evangelicalism. They also make it difficult to precisely forecast fundamentalism’s future or its long-term cultural impact.
On the global stage, fundamentalism continues to represent a vital renewal movement within many world faiths that anchors itself in presumed ancient traditions and scriptural foundations while battling more liberal or secularizing interpretations. Protestant fundamentalists see deep parallels between their struggles and analogues in Catholicism, Islam or Judaism to preserve orthodoxy from modernity. While particulars obviously differ by religion, similar cultural and theological tensions drive fundamentalist reactions, from perceived threats of evolution or higher criticism to concerns over changing sexual or family mores. This describes why fundamentalism as a category retains broad explanatory power both within evangelicalism and across multiple faith traditions.
