Scholastic theology refers to the academic theological study of Christian theology that began in the Middle Ages. It was heavily influenced by Aristotelian philosophy and involved the systematic analysis and synthesis of theology using the tools of logic and reason. Some key aspects of scholastic theology include:
- It relies heavily on deductive logic, metaphysics, and epistemology to analyze theological issues.
- It utilizes the dialectic method of proposing a theological question, presenting arguments for and against, and resolving with a logical conclusion.
- It seeks to reconcile Christian theology with classical philosophy, especially Aristotelianism.
- It places a strong emphasis on natural theology – using reason to understand God’s nature without relying on special revelation.
- It aims to provide a comprehensive and rational account of Christian theology and present theological truths in a logically coherent system.
The Bible does not explicitly discuss scholastic theology, as it emerged later in Christian history. However, some principles that influenced scholastic theology can be seen in Scripture:
- The emphasis on using reason and logic comes from verses like Isaiah 1:18 that exhorts “Come now, let us reason together” and 1 Peter 3:15 that tells believers to always be prepared to give a reasoned defense for their faith.
- The heavy reliance on philosophy stems from verses like Colossians 2:8 that warn against being taken captive by hollow and deceptive philosophy.
- Attempts to systematically organize theology echo Paul’s exhortation to “follow the pattern of sound words” (2 Timothy 1:13) and to avoid godless chatter that promotes controversies (1 Timothy 6:20).
While Scripture endorses reasoning and provides examples of theological argumentation (e.g. Romans), it does not explicitly advocate for the scholastic approach. However, scholastic theology utilizes the rational tools readily available to seek greater understanding of God’s truth revealed in Scripture and nature.
Scholastic theology first emerged in the 9th – 11th centuries with scholars like John Scotus Eriugena and Anselm of Canterbury. It became the dominant theological and philosophical approach in the high and late Middle Ages (12th – 15th centuries) through the works of figures like Peter Abelard, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham. Some defining features and key contributors during the height of scholasticism include:
- Systematic Theology – Scholastics aimed to present Christian theology as a comprehensive and coherent intellectual system, organizing it under headings like the nature of God, creation, humanity, sin, Jesus Christ, salvation, church, and sacraments. Thomas Aquinas’ Summa Theologica is a prime example.
- Extensive Commentaries – Detailed commentaries were written on the major theological works of figures like Peter Lombard’s Four Books of Sentences and Aristotle. For example, Aquinas wrote exhaustive commentaries on Aristotle’s works and Lombard’s Sentences.
- Quaestiones – A key scholastic method was to pose a quaestio or disputed question, present the case for various answers, then resolve it with philosophical and theological reasoning. See Summa Theologica’s structure of objections and replies to quaestiones.
- Logical Analysis – Scholastics utilized Aristotelian logic, metaphysics, and epistemology to precisely define terms, analyze arguments, recognize fallacies, and resolve contradictions in theology. This enabled detailed analysis and complex theological and philosophical discourse.
- Reconciling Faith and Reason – A core aim was to reconcile Biblical revelation with classical philosophy and demonstrate theology’s rational coherence. Aquinas harmonized Aristotle with Christian doctrine, upheld philosophy and theology’s compatibility, and showed theology as the “queen of the sciences.”
- Natural Theology – Reason was employed to explore theological truths discernible in nature independent of special revelation, like God’s existence and attributes. This was important for interacting with non-Christian philosophers of the era.
- Preeminence of Aristotle – After Aquinas’ meticulous appropriation, Aristotelian philosophy formed theology’s conceptual framework. Aristotle was regarded as “‘The Philosopher” whose works were subject to intense study and commentary.
The most influential scholastic theologians and philosophers include:
- Anselm of Canterbury (1033 – 1109) – Known as the founder of scholasticism, he wrote seminal works like Proslogion which famously argued for God’s existence from the idea of a being greater than which cannot be conceived.
- Peter Abelard (1079 – 1142) – Helped systematize theological study through his Sic et Non, a theological exercise of contrasting contradictory statements from Church Fathers without resolving the conflict.
- Peter Lombard (1096 – 1160) – His Four Books of Sentences became the standard theological textbook of the Middle Ages and shaped scholastic theological discussion for centuries.
- Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274) – The most important and influential scholastic theologian. Helped bridge theology and Aristotelian philosophy. Notable works include Summa Theologica, Summa Contra Gentiles.
- Duns Scotus (1266 – 1308) – Made significant contributions in metaphysics and theology, like his univocity theory that God and creatures share common being. Advocated use of both reason and will/intuition.
- William of Ockham (1285 – 1347) – His razor “plurality should not be assumed without necessity” and conceptualism shaped late scholasticism. Reduced role of reason and advocated theological simplicity.
Scholastic theology profoundly shaped how theology was studied and thought about in the late medieval period. Its impact and legacy on Christian theology includes:
- It helped make theology an academic discipline employing precise logic and philosophical analysis, establishing theology’s place in medieval universities alongside fields like law and medicine.
- Its systematic approach organized Christian theology into a comprehensive intellectual structure covering the full gamut of doctrinal topics.
- By interacting extensively with classical philosophy, it helped sharpen theology’s argumentation and develop theological vocabulary and concepts.
- It stimulated intense theological and philosophical speculation, debate, and development of doctrine within the Christian intellectual tradition.
- It demonstrated that Christian theology and faith can be compatible with rigorous logical examination, metaphysical inquiry, and utilization of philosophy.
- It contributed to sophisticated developments in metaphysics and philosophical theology in the Western tradition through figures like Aquinas.
- It encouraged consideration of theological issues from multiple perspectives – through quaestiones, arguments and counter-arguments were developed on disputed questions.
However, scholastic theology has also been criticized on various fronts:
- Over-reliance on Greek philosophy at the cost of biblical fidelity and Christian distinctive doctrines.
- Excessive rationalism that tries to conform theology to philosophy rather than allowing revelation to shape philosophy.
- Promoting theological debates and doctrinal disagreements disconnected from practical spiritual life.
- The minutely detailed theological analysis led to an overly intellectualized Christianity removed from piety and worship.
- Obscurantist vocabulary and dense argumentation making it inaccessible to ordinary Christians.
- Petrified attachment to Aristotle’s outdated philosophy and absorption in trivial logical distinctions and questions.
Overall, scholastic theology had a profoundly formative impact on the theological landscape, while also exhibiting certain deficiencies in hindsight. It represents a crucial chapter in the development of Christian theology that continues to shape theological study today in both its positive and negative aspects.
In the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, scholastic theology was rejected by early reformers like Martin Luther as overly speculative and spiritually empty. They emphasized a return to biblical substance and saving faith rather than philosophical sophistication. However, later Protestant scholastics like John Calvin appropriated scholastic methods to articulate Reformed theology. Post-Reformation Catholic theology also retained much scholastic influence. Elements of scholastic methodology and outlook thus persisted in Protestant and Catholic orthodoxy long after the Middle Ages, while also being significantly modified in light of theological developments.
Scholasticism declined in dominance in the Renaissance and early modern period as new philosophical currents like humanism gained force and new scientific findings challenged Aristotelian cosmology. Thinkers like Descartes introduced a new intellectual framework departing from scholastic Aristotelianism. However, scholastic approaches retained scholarly adherents through the 18th century, like Franciscan scholastics who continued studying Aquinas and Duns Scotus. Though it lacks the universality of the high medieval period, the 20th century saw a scholastic revival of sorts with renewed engagement with scholastic sources and method in both Protestant and Catholic theology.
So in summary, the key features, contributors, impact, criticisms and legacy of scholastic theology are:
- A theological methodology employing systematic analysis, logic, and Aristotelian philosophy to examine Christian doctrine.
- Emerged in the 9th-11th centuries, reached maturity in the 12th-15th centuries with thinkers like Aquinas, declined after the Reformation and Renaissance.
- Helped make theology an academic discipline and utilized philosophy to sharpen theology’s concepts and arguments.
- Critiqued for excessive intellectualism, rationalism, and lack of biblical grounding.
- Deeply shaped Western Christianity’s theological development and engagement with philosophy.
- Elements of scholastic theology persisted in Protestant and Catholic orthodoxy long after the medieval period.
While scholasticism does not define contemporary theology, its legacy continues to be felt and engaged. It represents a crucial chapter in the story of Christianity’s theological development over the centuries.
