The conciliar movement, also known as conciliarism, was a reform movement within the medieval Roman Catholic Church which held that supreme authority in spiritual matters resided with a general council of the church rather than exclusively with the pope. This view emerged in response to the Western Schism (1378–1417), a period during which rival claimants to the papacy created confusion and ecclesiastical instability.
The conciliar movement sought to resolve this instability by asserting that a general council representing the entire church could act as the supreme authority in resolving disputes and reforming the church. Key early conciliar theorists like Conrad of Gelnhausen and Henry of Langenstein argued that supreme authority rested with an ecumenical council rather than solely with the pope. Later conciliarists went further by claiming that general councils could actually depose popes.
The conciliar movement found expression at the Council of Constance (1414–1418), which resolved the Western Schism by deposing or accepting the resignations of the rival papal claimants. The Council asserted its authority to continue meeting at regular intervals to oversee reforms, though this claim was later rejected by Pope Martin V. The Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence (1431–1445) reasserted conciliar principles but ultimately failed to enact thorough reforms.
Though the conciliar movement declined by the mid-15th century, its principles anticipated the constitutionalism and parliamentary governance of later centuries. The emphasis on holding regular reforming councils influenced the convocation of the Fifth Lateran Council in 1512-1517, which met many of the goals of the conciliar reformers. Echoes of conciliar theory can also be found in the writings of major Protestant Reformers and in the polities of national churches that emerged from the Reformation.
Historical Context of the Conciliar Movement
The conciliar movement emerged in the context of the 14th century Papal Schism (1378-1417), which was triggered by disputed papal elections. In 1378, the French cardinals, asserting pressure from the French crown, elected Clement VII as pope and he established a rival papal court in Avignon. In Rome, the Italian cardinals elected Urban VI as pope. For nearly forty years, the rival papal lines competed for legitimacy.
This division within the church, known as the Western Schism, created several pressing problems. Having multiple claimants to the papacy caused confusion about which pope was legitimate. The schism facilitated national churches that looked to different popes for leadership, undermining the concept of a unified Western church under the pope. And the mushroomed number of cardinals appointed by rival popes burdened church finances.
Various proposals emerged to resolve the schism by the early 15th century. Some called for mutual resignation or arbitration to determine the rightful pope. Others suggested convening a general council to press the claimants to abdicate. The conciliar movement grew out of the proposals for a general council but went further by claiming that councils were an authoritative expression of the entire church.
Key Conciliar Theorists and Arguments
Early conciliar theorists argued that supreme authority rested not solely with the pope but more broadly with the leadership of the church, either in the form of a general council or the college of cardinals. Conrad of Gelnhausen, in 1380, asserted that a general council could depose a pope and that the college of cardinals had the right to limit papal power. Henry of Langenstein, in 1381, claimed that supreme authority rested with a general council which represented the whole church.
As the conciliar movement developed, theorists increasingly argued that general councils were the supreme ecclesiastical authority. Theologians Jean Gerson and Pierre d’Ailly claimed that councils could meet regularly and that frequent councils were in fact necessary to properly govern the church. Nicholas of Cusa went so far as to assert that papal supremacy was based not on divine law but merely on human custom.
Conciliarists argued that the pope derived authority from the church and councils rather than exclusively from apostolic succession or Petrine supremacy. Councils, as representative of the whole church, held greater authority and could limit, rebuke, or even depose popes if needed. Regular councils could better respond to church needs and reform wayward popes.
Opponents accused conciliarists of minimizing the divinely instituted papal office and introducing political concepts like constitutionalism into the church. Conciliarists in turn accused opponents of uncritical ultramontanism that concentrated power excessively in the papacy.
Realization by the Council of Constance
While the conciliar movement had been developing in theoretical terms since the 1380s, it first found major expression at the Council of Constance in 1414-1418. The Council was convened primarily to resolve the Papal Schism by pressuring the rival claimants to resign. It was bolstered by the theoretical support of prominent conciliarists like d’Ailly and Gerson.
In 1415, the Council received the abdication of antipope John XXIII. In 1417, it deposed the Avignon line of claimants and finally received the resignation of the Roman claimant, Gregory XII, resolving the schism. The Council elected a new undisputed pope, Martin V, in 1417.
In the process, the Council asserted its conciliar authority. The delegates declared that a general council represented the whole church and derived its authority directly from Christ. They also declared that councils should meet at regular intervals to oversee continuous reform of the church.
But Martin V rejected these claims, asserting instead the supremacy of papal authority over councils. So while Constance represented an important triumph of conciliarism, it did not result in sustained conciliar governance of the church.
Decline of the Movement
The momentum of conciliarism continued at the Council of Sienna (1423-1424) which enacted some reforms and confirmed the holding of regular councils. But conciliar theory suffered a major blow when Pope Martin V dissolved the council. This demonstrated the persisting primacy of papal authority over conciliar decrees.
The ideas regained influence at the Council of Basel which convened in 1431. The council reasserted the principles from Constance about regular councils and conciliar supremacy. But Pope Eugenius IV resisted these conciliar claims and tried dissolving the council in 1437, showing papal opposition to conciliar theory.
After negotiations, the council tried relocating to Ferrara and Florence in 1438-1445. But the opposition of Eugenius IV combined with meager attendance at the relocated councils undermined meaningful conciliar governance. Within several decades, the conciliar movement dissipated as a major force within the church.
Still, conciliarism significantly challenged papal absolutism in the 15th century. And it anticipated later constitutional theories about governance and parliamentary authority that emerged in medieval Christendom.
Legacy and Influence
By the mid-15th century, conciliarism declined as the primary papal authority was reestablished over reform councils. But the push for general councils influenced Pope Julius II’s decision to convoke the Fifth Lateran Council in 1512-1517. This council succeeded in enacting many of the reform goals first articulated by the conciliar movement.
Conciliar principles echo in Protestant reformers like John Calvin who emphasized that councils were the supreme earthly authority for resolving disputes within the church. The governance of Reformed national churches also drew on conciliar notions of collective leadership and constitutionalism.
Within Catholicism, advocates of conciliarism faded but reemerged in the 19th century among theological modernists associated with movements like nouvelle theologie. The Second Vatican Council of 1962-1965 instantiated some conciliar instincts about broader church representation and reform.
While conciliarism failed as an institutional movement in the medieval church, it pioneered notions of power sharing, collective governance, and reform from within that have continued relevance in modern Christianity and political thought.