Tertullian was an early Christian author who lived during the late second and early third century AD. He was one of the most prolific early Latin authors and is credited as being the founder of Western theology. Tertullian made notable contributions to many areas of Christian theology such as Christology, pneumatology, ecclesiology, eschatology, and soteriology. He also wrote extensively on practical Christian themes such as repentance, baptism, prayer, and marriage. Tertullian is perhaps most famous for being the first writer in Latin known to have used the term “Trinity” and for providing the oldest extant treatise in Latin on the subject of the Trinity. While he was influential in shaping early Western Christianity, Tertullian later in life adopted views that were considered unorthodox and he ended up joining the Montanist movement.
Tertullian was born around 155-160 AD in the city of Carthage, which was located in modern day Tunisia. Carthage was an important commercial and intellectual center in the Roman Empire at that time. Little is known about his family background or early life before he converted to Christianity. Based on his writings, it appears he received an education in rhetoric and law which enabled him to become a prolific writer. As a young man living in Carthage, Tertullian would have been exposed to a melting pot of cultures, philosophies, and religious beliefs. Carthage was a hub of pagan, Jewish, and early Christian influences.
The main source of information we have about Tertullian’s life comes from his own writings. It appears he lived in Carthage for most of his life and was an active participant in the church community there. Tertullian wrote his first major work, Ad nationes (“To the Nations”) around 197 AD while in his late 30s. This work was addressed to both the secular rulers of the Roman Empire and to pagan readers in general. In Ad nationes, Tertullian defended Christianity against common misconceptions and charges against the faith. He would go on to author over thirty additional works in Latin over the next twenty-five years of his life.
Based on clues in his writings, Tertullian was most likely converted to Christianity around 195 AD. His writings display knowledge of Greek philosophy, Roman law, and the chief religions of the Roman Empire including the imperial cult, mystery religions, and Gnosticism. It appears Tertullian had a legal background and authoritative personality that was well-suited to defend Christianity using logic and rhetoric. Jerome, a later Christian writer, described him as having an “agile mind” and being “the first Latin writer after Victor and Apollonius.” Jerome also wrote that Tertullian was “one of the most learned and renowned of the Christian authors.”
The church in Carthage where Tertullian lived gave him exposure to apostolic teachings passed down from men who had been directly instructed by the apostles. This Apostolic Succession formed a basis for Tertullian’s beliefs and teachings. The church in North Africa is believed to have been founded by the apostle Mark himself and later nurtured by the teachings of Peter and Paul. This close proximity historically to the apostles significantly shaped Tertullian, though he never met Christ or the original apostles himself.
Tertullian became a prolific Christian author and apologist during his time in Carthage. His extensive writings influenced the Western Church for generations after him and today provide invaluable insight into the state of the early church. Tertullian authored numerous treatises and practical instructions on topics spanning from doctrinal debates to moral disciplines. A sampling of some of his major extant works includes:
- Ad martyras (“To the Martyrs”), 197 AD
- De spectaculis (“On the Spectacles”), c. 197-204 AD
- De anima (“On the Soul”), c.203-206 AD
- Adversus Marcionem (“Against Marcion”), c. 207-208 AD
- De corona (“On the Soldiers Crown”), 211-212 AD
- De virginibus velandis (“On the Veiling of Virgins”), c. 206-212 AD
- Adversus Praxean (“Against Praxeas”), c. 213 AD
- De monogamia (“On Monogamy”), c. 213 AD
- De pallio (“On the Pallium”), c. 213-217 AD
- De anima (“On the Soul”), c. 213 AD
- De carne Christi (“On the Flesh of Christ”), c. 213-217 AD
- De resurrectione carnis (“On the Resurrection of the Flesh”), c. 213-217 AD
- Adversus Hermogenem (“Against Hermogenes”), c. 213-217 AD
- De paenitentia (“On Repentance”), c. 213-217 AD
- De puditicia (“On Modesty”), c. 217-222 AD
Tertullian made extensive use of imagery, analogies, rhetorical devices, humor, sarcasm, and word play in his writings. His works are full of unique expressions and memorable statements that encapsulate early Christian beliefs and practices. Some of his famous quotes include:
- “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church.” (Apologeticus)
- “Christians are made, not born.” (Apologeticus)
- “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” (De praescriptione haereticorum)
- “Lord, give me patience, but hurry!” (De ieiunio adversus psychicos)
- “Truth persuades by teaching, but does not teach by persuading.” (Adversus Valentinianos)
- “We were made, not born, Christians.” (Ad nationes)
Tertullian strove to communicate Christian beliefs to pagans using philosophical concepts they could grasp. At times he is apologetic and aims to clarify misunderstandings about Christianity. In other works he goes on the offensive, criticizing the false beliefs and immoral practices of pagan society from a Christian perspective. He comments extensively on the rival systems of thought and religion present in the Roman Empire such as mythology, Gnosticism, Marcionism, and Stoicism. Tertullian is regarded as a “Christian humanist” who approached intellectual issues rationally while remaining true to revelation.
In addition to his extensive body of apologetic and polemic writings, Tertullian was instrumental in articulating much of the terminology and conceptual framework that shaped early Christian theology. He helped establish a common vocabulary and structure of beliefs which facilitated future theological study. Tertullian is credited with being the first to use Latin terms such as “trinity” (trinitas), “person” (persona), and “substance” (substantia) in Christian writing. These words were brought into Christian usage from Roman law and philosophy to describe biblical concepts in a manner his audience could grasp.
Some of Tertullian’s key contributions to Christian theology include:
- Defining and defending the doctrine of the Trinity against modalism. Tertullian used ‘substance’ and ‘person’ to explain one divine substance existing in three persons.
- Framing a Christian anthropology using concepts of human nature, flesh, spirit, and soul.
- Articulating the idea of Traducianism; that human souls are generated by the parents, not created individually.
- Rejecting the Gnostic view that matter is evil and affirming that God created the material world and called it good.
- Asserting free will of individuals against the doctrines of Marcionites, Valentinians, and others.
- Introducing the New Prophecy of Montanism and notions of authoritative new revelations.
- Defending the validity of the bodily resurrection against the skepticism of pagan intellectuals.
- Promoting rigorous standards for church discipline, holiness, and clerical leadership.
- Opposing the remarriage of widows and approving of celibate clergy.
While Tertullian held to orthodox views on the Trinity, Christology, and sin during his early years, he became associated with an unorthodox prophetic movement known as Montanism around 207 AD. The Montanists believed in modern day prophets who received new revelations from the Holy Spirit which supplemented the Scriptures. They called for higher moral standards among Christians, emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit, and believed in an imminent Second Coming of Christ.
Tertullian wrote several works in support of the Montanist prophets and revelations while attacking what he viewed as a compromised church leadership in Carthage. This eventually led to a break with the mainstream church. Tertullian continued writing pamphlets and treatises articulating his distinctive views and criticizing his opponents until his death around 225 AD.
While Tertullian aligned himself doctrinally with the Montanists later in life, his extensive writings up until that point profoundly shaped the theology of the orthodox Church in the West. Tertullian’s literary works laid crucial groundwork in areas such as Christology, Trinitarian doctrine, and eschatology that future Church fathers built upon. His fiery rhetorical style and extensive vocabulary were influential in the West where knowledge of Greek was declining.
Tertullian is cited as a father of Latin Christianity and Western theology. Through his copious writings, Tertullian defined the vocabulary and conceptual structure to enable constructive theological discourse around the Trinity. He also articulated key areas of Christian doctrine and practice against competing schools of thought in the Roman Empire. Tertullian laid a solid foundation for future Latin theologians like Cyprian, Lactantius, Augustine, and Jerome to build upon. His works penetrated the theology of Western Christianity and he continues to be read for his historical value today.
To summarize, Tertullian was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage who lived during the late second and early third century AD. He was instrumental in articulating Western theology in Latin using concepts from Greek philosophy and Roman law. Key contributions by Tertullian include defending orthodox beliefs like the Trinity, framing important Christian doctrines such as free will and original sin, articulating terms like “trinity”, “substance”, and “person”, and promoting rigorous standards of Christian living. While aligned with unorthodox Montanists later in life, Tertullian profoundly shaped early Western theology through his extensive apologetic writings which still retain value today.
