The Zealots were a political movement in 1st century Judea which sought to incite the people of Judea Province to rebel against the Roman Empire and expel it from the Holy Land by force of arms. The Zealots objected to Roman rule and violently resisted the Roman domination of Jewish lands on religious grounds, even as Herod’s heirs and the wealthy Jewish aristocracy colluded with Rome to preserve their wealth and power. They are one of several Jewish political and religious movements of the time, along with the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.
The Zealots emerged around AD 6 against Quirinius’ census of Judea, which they saw as a sign of Roman exploitation, viewing loyalty to Rome as a form of idolatry. Their creed focused on national liberation through armed resistance. They rebelled against Agrippa I in 42, being brutally crushed by 43. The Zealots played a leading role in the First Jewish Revolt of 66–70. The most extremist group, known as the Sicarii, assassinated Romans and Roman sympathizers and took the stronghold of Masada near the end of the revolt. According to contemporary historian Josephus, the Zealots followed John of Giscala as their leader.
Origins of the Zealots
The Zealots likely emerged out of the growing resentment of Jewish people to Roman rule over Judea and the Roman imposition of taxation. The Zealot movement traces its roots back to 6 AD when Judea came under direct Roman rule and was organized as the Roman province of Judea. At the time, Judea was being ruled by a series of Jewish client kings and high priests under the ultimate authority of the Roman governorate of Syria and Roman emperor. Growing discontent erupted into open revolt with the introduction of the census of Quirinius in 6 AD, which the Zealots saw as a sign of Roman domination and oppression.
“But Judas the Galilean rose up in the days of the census and drew away some of the people after him. He too perished, and all who followed him were scattered.” (Acts 5:37 ESV)
This sets the origins of the Zealot movement at the time of the major census of Judea conducted under Roman authority in 6 AD by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, who had become legate of Syria in 6 AD. The census was highly unpopular amongst Jewish people and the Zealots may have emerged in reaction to it.
Beliefs and Goals of the Zealots
The Zealots were fiercely devoted to the Torah and believed that all means were justified to liberate Judea from Roman occupation and restore full Jewish sovereignty over Judea. The Zealots objected to Roman rule over Judea on both political and religious grounds.
Politically, the Zealots sought to end Roman occupation and taxation of Judea and to restore an independent Jewish state. They resented and objected to the rule of Rome over Judea, which was the historic homeland of the Jews. They saw Roman rule as an illegitimate foreign domination and sought to incite rebellion.
Religiously, they saw loyalty to Rome or payment of taxes to it as a form of idolatry incompatible with loyalty to God. They believed only God, as the King of the Jews, held authority over the Jews. Broadly speaking, Zealots refused to serve any master other than God.
The beliefs of the Zealots have been characterized as a form of “theocratic nationalism”, focused on achieving the political goal of ending Roman rule with the fervor of religious zeal and extremism. The Zealots essentially formed a militant political movement focused on achieving Jewish independence through armed revolt.
History of the Zealot Movement
The Zealot movement has its origins with Judas of Galilee in 6 AD, but became a major movement with the emergence of anti-Roman sentiment throughout the 1st century AD. Key events include:
- Emergence under Judas the Galilean in 6 AD – The census of Quirinius in 6 AD sparks Judas of Galilee to found the Zealots and launch revolt.
- Revolt under Eleazar ben Ananias in 52 AD – The Zealots revolt against the Romans under Eleazar ben Ananias, seizing the Temple in Jerusalem before being defeated by Roman troops.
- Revolt against Agrippa II in 66 AD – Led by Menahem ben Judah, Zealots revolt against Jewish king Agrippa II, the grandson of Herod the Great, inciting the First Jewish-Roman War.
- Role in First Jewish-Roman War 66-73 AD – The Zealots were a leading faction in the Jewish revolt, known for their militancy. They help capture Jerusalem and drive out the Romans for a time.
- Defeat of the Sicarii at Masada in 73 AD – The most militant Zealots, known as the Sicarii, held the fortress Masada until 73 AD, before committing mass suicide as the Romans stormed it.
While the Zealot movement was defeated by the Romans by 73 AD, its legacy continued as Zealot ideals influenced later revolutionary movements in Judea against foreign occupation.
Beliefs and Practices
The Zealots were devoted to the Torah and Jewish law. They had a strict and unwavering interpretation of the Torah and opposed any attempt to introduce innovations or adaptations of Jewish law. They opposed the Roman census not just on nationalist grounds, but because it violated their interpretation of Jewish law and was considered an idolatrous act.
The Zealots practiced circumcision, observed Jewish dietary laws and celebrated Jewish holidays faithfully. They were deeply committed to temple sacrifice and were incensed at any perceived profanation of the Temple of Jerusalem by Romans or Roman sympathizers.
Politically, the Zealots opposed loyalty oaths to Rome and payment of taxes to Rome. They believed the Jews should only be loyal to and pay taxes to God. They engaged in militant resistance to Roman occupation through targeted assassinations and violent raids.
The Zealots rejected any accommodation with Rome and the Jewish aristocracy that cooperated with Rome. They pushed militant extremism, engaging in assassination and violent revolt as the only solution. The most militant Zealots were known as Sicarii (“dagger men”) who engaged in public assassinations with concealed daggers.
Leadership and Organization
The Zealot movement does not appear to have had a single unified leadership, but was rather loosely organized around shared beliefs and charismatic figures that arose at different times. Key leaders include:
- Judas the Galilean – Founded the Zealot movement in 6 AD in reaction to the census.
- Zadok the Pharisee – Early Zealot leader who broke from the Pharisees sometime between 6 AD and 20 AD.
- Hezekiah – Zealot leader and father of Judas the Galilean.
- Eleazar ben Ananias – Led Zealot forces in seizing the Temple in Jerusalem in 52 AD.
- Menahem – Leader of Zealot revolt against Agrippa II starting in 66 AD.
- Eleazar ben Simon – Led Zealot forces in Jerusalem during the Jewish revolt 66-70 AD.
- John of Giscala – Prominent Zealot leader during the revolt who escaped Jerusalem to continue resistance.
Local leaders likely organized followers in each town and village, radicalizing them against Rome. They do not appear to have formed a long-lasting united organization. The Zealots allied with the Sicarii faction during the First Jewish Revolt, with the militancy of the Sicarii defining the movement at that stage.
Relationship to other Groups
The Zealots arose in opposition to the Pharisees and Sadducees who dominated the Temple priesthood and Jewish political leadership. They objected to the compromises these elites were willing to make with Rome to preserve their power.
The Zealots broke from the Pharisees over their accommodation with Rome. While both groups were devoted to the Torah, the Zealots advocated militancy and extremism versus the Pharisee’s legalistic approach. The Zealots saw the Pharisees as corrupted by their willingness to accommodate Roman rule.
They were also at odds with the Sadducees, who were even more willing to collaborate with Rome given their base of power was the Temple priesthood. The Sadducees rejected the interpretations of Torah so central to the Zealot identity.
The Essenes, who withdrew into ascetic communities like Qumran waiting for divine deliverance, rejected the militant activism of the Zealot movement as futile. However, some scholars see Zealot ideology influencing the Essene worldview.
The Zealots were allied for a time with the less religiously-focused Sicarii movement who relied on assassination and terror. But their extremism ultimately lost them popular support.
Role in the Jewish Revolt of 66-73 AD
The Zealot movement played a leading role in the First Jewish-Roman War of 66-73 AD. This catastrophic revolt against Rome ended with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple, devastating Judea.
Resentment of Roman rule had been simmering for decades when the revolt finally broke out in 66 AD, sparked by the Zealot revolt against Agrippa II. Zealots under Menahem assaulted Jerusalem and the fortress of Antonia. They defeated the Roman garrison of Jerusalem and drove them out.
The revolt spread throughout Judea, with Zealots playing key roles in pushing militancy and violence against Rome. Zealots under Eleazar ben Simon took control of Jerusalem. Zealots under John of Giscala set up a base in the Galilee.
The main Zealot stronghold was the Temple in Jerusalem. This symbolically reinforced their role as defenders of Jewish religiosity and independence. However, factional infighting broke out between different Zealot leaders vying for control.
In 70 AD the Romans under Titus retook Jerusalem after a bloody siege, destroying the temple. This broke the power of the Zealots of Jerusalem. However, pockets of Zealot resistance continued, especially at the fortress of Masada by the Dead Sea.
In 73 AD over 900 Sicarii Zealots at Masada killed themselves rather than surrender to the Romans, ending the revolt. The Zealot movement ceased to exist in any organized sense after this defeat.
Legacy and Impact
While the Zealot movement was ultimately defeated by Rome, their militant resistance left a lasting legacy on history. Their movement showed the depth of resentment against Roman rule amongst Jewish populace.
The revolt they sparked succeeded in briefly throwing off Roman rule and gave the world a glimpse of an independent Judea. Even in defeat, their resistance demonstrated the bravery of the Jewish people against foreign oppression.
The ideals of the Zealot movement – militant nationalism focused on achieving religious goals – influenced Jewish history for centuries. Later movements like the Sicarii Zealots and Jewish rebels during the Bar Kokhba revolt were inspired by the earlier Zealot cause.
While the Zealot movement faded after the failed revolt, its legacy lived on in the Jewish longing for independence and willingness to embrace extremism to achieve it. The Zealot cause shaped Jewish identity and changed the course of Judean history.
